THE  LIBRARY  OF  THE 
UNIVERSITY  OF 
NORTH  CAROLINA 
AT  CHAPEL  HILL 


ENDOWED  BY  THE 
DIALECTIC  AND  PHILANTHROPIC 
SOCIETIES 


QC955 


UNIVERSITY  OF  N.C.  AT  CHAPEL  HILL 


1000108727 


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in  2014 


https://archive.org/details/tornadoeswhattheOOfinl 


TORNADOES. 


WHAT  THEY  ARE  AND  HOW  TO  OBSERVE  THEM; 
WITH    PRACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    FOR   THE  PROTECTION 
OF  LIFE  AND  PROPERTY. 


QC 


BY 


JOHN  P.  FINLEY,  M.  S.,  F.  S.  Sc. 

Lieut.  Signal  Corps,  U.  S.  Army  ; 
Honorary  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Science,  Letters  and  Art,  London  ;  Member 
of  the  Societie  Meteorologique  de  France,  Paris. 


NEW  YORK  : 

The  Insuranxe  Monitor. 


1887. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  3^ear  1887,  by  C.  C.  Hine,  in  the 
office  of  the  Librarian  oi  Congress  at  Washington. 


The  important  information  set  forth  in  this  book  is  the  result 
of  many  years  of  labor  and  the  examination  of  more  than  five 
thousand  storms.  Ascertained  facts  have  been  taken  as  the 
basis  of  every  statement,  and  it  is  believed  that,  while  further  in- 
vestigation may  add  truth  to  truth,  it  will  only  set  more  strongly 
the  seal  of  authority  upon  what  is  here  presented  concerning 
the  special  characteristics  of  tornadoes  and  the  great  dangers 
which  accompany  them,  augmenting  the  practical  knowledge 
thus  far  obtained  regarding  the  protection  of  life  and  property. 


THE  AUTHOR. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Tornadoes  Peculiar  to  America   7 

Chart  No.  i,  Showing  Geographical  Distribution  of  Tor- 
nadoes facing  page   7 

Cyclones   10 

Hurricanes   13 

Whirlwinds   14 

Waterspouts   15 

Hailstorms   16 

Thunder-storms   17 

The  Tornado ;  its  Definition,  Conditions  of  Formation,  etc.  19 

Premonitory  Signs   25 

Illustrations  of  Tornado -clouds  27,  29,  31,  33,  36,  37,  etc. 

Protection  43 

Suggestions  for  Escape  44 

Plan  for  a  Tornado-cave  51-65 

Illustrations  of  Tornado-cave  54,  56,  58,  etc. 

Descriptions  of  Individual  Tornadoes,  with  Numerous  Illus- 
trations 69-100 

Tornado  in  Saline  County,  Kansas  69 

Tornado  at  Lee's  Summit,  Missouri   78 

Tornado  in  Marshall  County,  Kansas   86 

Tornado  in  South  Carolina   95 

Chart  No.  2,  Delineating  Course  of  Progressive  Movement, 

facing  page   loc 

Tabulated  Statistics  of  Tornado  Observations  104-144 

Summary  of  Results  145 

Scientific  Resume  of  Tornado  Characteristics  147 

Instructions  for  Observing  Wind-storms  169 

General  Instructions  to  Volunteer  Tornado  Reporters  189 


TORNADOES, 


BY 

Lieut.  John  P.  Finley,  U.  S.  A. 


The  people  of  the  United  States  are  no  longer  strangers  to" 
that  dreaded  aerial  monster,  the  Tornado.  A  single  experi- 
ence of  this  awful  convulsion  of  the  elements  suffices  to  fasten 
the  memory  of  its  occurrence  upon  the  mind  with  such  a 
dreadful  force  that  no  eff'ort  can  efface  the  remembrance  of  it. 
The  destructive  violence  of  this  storm  exceeds  in  its  power, 
fierceness,  and  grandeur  all  other  phenomena  of  the  at- 
mosphere. 

For  over  two  hundred  years  past  the  scientific  records  of 
this  country  have  furnished  information  concerning  these 
storms.  It  is  the  same  fearful  story  year  after  year,  of  destruc- 
tion and  death,  and  the  records  are  now  sufficiently  complete 
to  show  beyond  all  contradiction  or  exception  that  tornadoes 
are  indigenous  to  this  country.  They  belong  here  because 
our  geographical  position  and  the  topography  of  the  country 
are  altogether  favorable  for  the  conditions  which  give  rise  to 
their  formation.  No  other  country  in  the  world  is  scourged 
by  them  as  is  the  United  States  of  America.  If  our  broad  ex- 
panse of  country  was  cut  up  by  mountain  ranges  running  in 
every  direction,  forming  a  network  over  the  vast  plains  of 
the  West,  and  cutting  up  like  a  checker-board  the  great  valleys 
between  the  Appalachian  and  Rocky  Mountain  ranges,  then 


s 


topographical  conditions  would  intervene  and  present  formid- 
able barriers  to  the  direction  and  effect  of  surface  currents. 
These  conditions,  if  they  were  present,  would  well  nigh  rid 
the  country  of  the  funnel-shaped  cloud.  Fortunately — or  un- 
fortunately, we  are  not  to  say  which — there  are  no  natural  barri- 
ers to  the  development  of  tornadoes  in  the  greater  portion  of 
the  United  States.  Their  geographical  distribution  is  graphic- 
ally presented  by  chart  No.  i  (see  frontispiece),  and  the  effect 
of  the  Appalachian  chain  of  mountains,  and  that  of  the 
Rockies  and  the  Sierra  Nevadas  over  the  vast  stretch  of 
country  west  of  the  looth  meridian  (Greenwich)  is  strongly  dis- 
played on  the  chart  and  the  argument  set  forth  is  conclusive. 

The  populous  region  of  the  United  States  is  forever  doomed 
to  the  devastation  of  the  tornado.  As  certain  as  that  night 
follows  day  is  the  coming  of  the  funTiel-shaped  cloud.  So 
long  as  the  sun  shines  upon  the  vast  regions  in  the  Mississippi 
and  Missouri  valleys,  there  will  forever  occur  those  atmos- 
pheric conditions  which  terminate  in  the  destructive  violence 
of  the  tornado.  Nature's  laws  are  unerring  in  their  certainty 
of  procedure,  the  earth  must  travel  in  its  orbit  about  the 
sun  and  the  seasons  must  recur  in  regular  sequence  as  the  re- 
sult of  this  wonderful  periodicity  of  movement.  The  earth 
must  revolve  upon  its  axis,  and  daylight  and  darkness,  heat 
and  cold,  must  succeed  each  other  with  infallible  precision. 
Without  these  great  and  regular  mutations  dependent  upon 
the  solar  system,  atmospheric  phenomena  would  cease  alto- 
gether. Granting  that  the  solar  system  must  continue  intact, 
we  have  but  to  watch  and  protect  ourselves  as  best  we  may 
against  the  fury  of  the  elements.  Ignorance  of  our  surround- 
ings is  a  most  unfortunate  plea  for  those  who  stubbornly  fail 
to  heed  the  warnings  of  science.  Thousands  of  people  com- 
fort themselves  with  the  thought  that  as  they  have  escaped  in 
the  past,  so  will  they  always  remain  free  from  danger;  but  a 
knowledge  of  the  tornado,  and  the  necessary  precautions  to 
be  taken  for  purposes  of  safety,  should  be  as  common  and 


9 


familiar  to  the  people  living  in  tornado  districts  as  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  ordinary  methods  of  extinguishing  fire.  Every 
effort  should  be  made  to  popularize  the  information  on  this 
most  important  subject. 

In  spite  of  all  that  has  been  written  and  published  about 
tornadoes  in  the  press,  in  scientific  journals,  and  through  the 
Signal  Service,  much  confusion  prevails  regarding  the  appli- 
cation of  the  term  and  the  distinctive  character  of  the  storm. 
This  confusion  leads  to  a  most  unfortunate  disregard  of  cer- 
tain necessary  provisions  for  safety  which  should  not  be 
neglected  by  people  residing  in  the  tornado  districts.  Under 
the  head  of  wind-storms there  are  various  atmospheric 
phenomena,  severally  designated  as  tornadoes,  cyclones,  hurri- 
canes, whirlwinds,  waterspouts,  hailstorms,  and  thunder- 
storms, which  are  essentially  distinct  in  their  characteristics. 
While  they  are  all  seriously  destructive  in  their  effects,  there 
are  many  differences  which  give  rise  to  modifications  in  their 
development  which  it  is  of  importance  to  know.  All  of  these 
storms  are  more  or  less  destructive  to  life  and  property,  there- 
fore means  of  protection  should  invite  the  earnest  attention  of 
all  people. 

The  coming  and  going  of  these  storms  are  as  certain  as 
death,  yet  adequate  means  of  protection  for  the  body  and 
for  property  are  strangely  ignored  !  A  practical  knowledge  of 
the  various  kinds  of  storms  known  to  the  United  States 
should  be  one  of  the  subjects  of  instruction  in  our  public 
schools.  As  the  country  increases  in  wealth  and  population, 
which  it  now  is  doing  with  wonderful  rapidity,  the  danger  to 
be  apprehended  from  the  violence  of  wind-storms  is  ap- 
palling. Formerly,  these  violent  meteors  left  no  mark  upon 
the  treeless  and  uninhabited  prairie,  or  if  passing  through  the 
wooded  regions  there  remained  but  the  ''windfall"  to  denote 
the  track  of  the  monster,  but  now  the  farm-house  and  the 
village  dot  the  plain,  and  the  hardy  laborer  has  forced  his 
way  with  his  family  into  the  depths  of  the  forest.   Where,  years 


lO 

before,  there  were  but  inanimate  objects  to  mark  the  fury  of 
the  tornado,  precious  lives  and  hard-earned  property  now 
succumb  to  its  violence.  The  funnel-shaped  cloud  with  its 
tail  lashing  the  earth  must  now  pursue  a  most  tortuous  course 
to  avoid  the  farm-house  and  the  mill,  the  schoolhouse  and 
the  church.  The  best  evidences  of  civilization  and  material 
prosperity  suffer  untold  misfortune,  and  must  continue  to  do 
so  while  our  earth  has  an  atmosphere  and  the  sun  shines 
upon  it. 

This  state  of  things,  which  upon  first  consideration  may 
cause  alarm  and  discouragement,  should  upon  reflection  give 
rise  to  courageous  efforts  in  the  direction  of  securing  in- 
demnity from  loss  of  property,  and  establishing  provisions  of 
safety  for  human  life.  The  protection  of  life  and  property 
from  fire,  shipwreck,  and  disease  has  compelled  the  growth 
of  institutions  under  State  authority  which  afford  a  safe  and 
generous  indemnification  in  case  of  loss  ;  a  similar  necessity 
in  the  event  of  destruction  by  wind-storms  must  call  for  the 
growth  and  support  of  similar  institutions. 

I  have  previously  referred  to  the  necessity  of  a  practical 
knowledge  by  the  people  generally  of  the  various  classes  of 
wind-storms,  particularly  the  tornado.  It  will  not  be  amiss 
here  to  give  a  brief  description  of  those  phenomena,  point 
out  their  differences,  and  then  follow  with  a  special  discus- 
sion of  the  tornado. 

CYCLONES. 

A  cyclone  is  not  a  tornado,  either  in  the  perfection  of  its 
development,  or  in  any  stage  of  its  formation  and  progressive 
movement.  The  two  storms  are  essentially  different.  The 
cyclone  possesses  the  following  characteristics:  The  path  of 
the  storm  is  a  parabolic  curve.  It  trends  northwestward  from 
the  West  Indies  until  it  reaches  parallel  30°  N.  when  it  curves 
to  the  N.  E.  and  continues  in  that  direction,  either  at  some 
distance  off  the  Atlantic  coast,  on  its  immediate  border,  or  a 


II 


short  distance  inland.  The  storm  finally  disappears  ocean- 
waid  in  the  vicinity  of  parallel  of  50°  N.  The  diameter  of  its 
path  varies  from  several  hundred  to  over  one  thousand  miles. 
At  the  immediate  center  of  the  storm  there  is  a  dead  calm,  a 
most  fatal  place  for  ships  to  be  caught.  At  no  point  without 
the  storm's  center  does  the  air  actually  move  or  whirl  in  a 
circle,  but  there  is  a  cyclonic  tendency  of  the  atmosphere 
about  the  region  of  barometric  minima,  viz.:  where  the 
barometer  is  the  lowest.  Upon  taking  a  number  of  points, 
located  here  and  there  in  the  four  quadrants*  of  the  meteoric 
disturbance,  it  will  be  found  that  in  the  northeast  quadrant 
the  winds  vary  from  southeast  to  northeast ;  in  the  northwest 
quadrant  from  northeast  to  northwest ;  in  the  southwest 
quadrant  from  northwest  to  southwest,  and  in  the  southeast 
quadrant  from  southwest  to  southeast.  The  barometer  is  a 
veiry  important  factor  in  all  calculations  bearing  upon  a 
determination  of  the  character  and  approach  of  the  cyclone  at 
any  point  in  the  parabolic  course  of  the  storm.  The  wind 
very  rarely  reaches  either  an  estimated  or  measured  velocity 
of  one  hundred  miles  per  hour.  The  maximum  velocity  gen- 
erally ranges  from  sixty  to  eighty  miles  per  houn  As  a  rule 
there  is  no  sudden,  overwhelming  dash  of  the  wind,  but  a 
gradual  approach  or  increase  of  movement  which  eventually 
culminates  in  a  fierce  intensity  sufficiently  powerful  at  times 
to  destroy  buildings  or  sink  the  largest  ships.  Cyclones 
occur  most  frequently  in  the  months  from  August  to  Novem- 
ber. In  the  China  and  Japan  Seas  this  class  of  wind-storms 
is  called  typhoons.  In  general,  as  to  their  place  of  origin, 
cyclones  form  south  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  between  the  belt 
of  calms  and  the  southern  limit  of  the  trade-winds ;  say, 
briefly,  in  the  vicinity  of  10°  N.,  50°  W.  This  region  co- 
incides with  the  zone  of  constant  rainfall,  where  evaporation 

*  Quadrant  ;  the  fourth  part  ofa  circle.  In  describing  wind-storms,  etc.,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  speak  of  the  area  alluded  to  as  divided  into  four  "  quadrants the  north- 
east, northwest,  southwest,  and  southeast. 


12 


is  very  rapid,  cloud  formation  exceedingly  brisk,  the  lair 
almost  constantly  saturated  with  moisture,  and  heavy  con- 
densation a  regular  feature  of  the  day.  Typhoons  form 
south  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Philippine  Islands,  moving  thence  northwestward  to  the  Asiatlic 
Coast  and  then  curving  to  the  northeast  over  the  adjacent  seas 
and  islands.  As  to  the  character  of  the  region  in  which  th^y 
form,  the  same  remarks  apply  as  in  the  case  of  cyclones. 

TORNADOES. 

The  tornado  is  truly  and  invariably  a  land-storm,  which  we 
find  possessed  of  the  following  prominent  characteristics  :  A 
path  varying  in  width  from  a  few  yards  to  eighty  rods.  T^e 
general  direction  of  movement  of  the  tornado-cloud  is  ii:i- 
variably  from  a  point  in  the  southwest  quadrant  to  a  point 
in  the  northeast  quadrant.  The  tornado-cloud  assumes  the 
form  of  a  funnel,  the  small  end  drawing  near  to  or  resting 
upon  the  earth.  This  cloud,  or  the  moving  air  of  which  it 
is  the  embodiment,  revolves  about  a  central,  vertical  axis 
with  inconceivable  rapidity,  and  always  in  a  direction  con- 
trary to  the  movement  of  the  hands  of  a  watch.  The 
destructive  violence  of  the  storm  is  sometimes  confined  to 
th^  immediate  path  of  the  cloud,  as  when  the  small  or  tail 
end  just  touches  the  earth  While,  on  the  other  hand,  as  the 
body  of  the  cloud  lowers,  more  of  it  rests  upoh  the  earth,  the 
violence  increases  and  the  path  widens  to  the  extreme  limit. 
The  tornado  with  hardly  an  exception  occurs  in  the  afternoon, 
just  after  the  hottest  part  of  the  day,  and  generally  disappears 
before  the  going  down  of  the  sun.  The  hour  of  greatest  fre- 
quency is  between  three  and  four  p.  m.  A  tornado  very 
rarely,  if  ever,  begins  after  six  p.  m.  ,  but  a  tornado  commencing 
about  five  p.  m.  may  coniinue  its  characteristic  violence  until 
nearly  eight  p.  m.,  which  only  means  that  the  tornado-clouci 
may  be  traveling  after  six  p.  m.  or  after  seven  p.  m.,  but  it  does 
not  develop,  that  is,  make  its  appearance  for  the  first  time,: 


13 


after  those  hours.  Without  the  path  of  destruction,  even  to 
the  shortest  distances,  at  times  even  along  the  immediate 
edge,  the  smallest  objects  often  remain  undisturbed,  although 
a  few  yards  distant  the  largest  and  strongest  buildings  are 
crushed  to  atoms.  At  any  point  along  the  storm  s  path, 
where  there  is  opportunity  afforded  the  tornado-cloud  to  dis- 
play its  power,  the  disposition  of  the  debris  presents  unmis- 
takable signs  of  the  revolving,  right-to-left  action  of  the  wind. 
The  violence  and  intensity  of  the  destructive  power  increases 
directly  as  you  pass  from  the  circumference  of  the  storm  to  its 
center. 

Observations  with  the  barometer  are  of  little  practical  value 
at  any  one  point,  whether  made  before  or  after  the  tornado- 
cloud  has  formed  or  while  it  is  approaching.  Such  observa- 
tions will  not  indicate  its  approach,  however  near  the  position 
of  the  instrument  to  the  point  of  the  cloud's  inception.  The 
' '  tornado  season is  embraced  between  March  and  October. 
The  months  of  greatest  frequency  are  May  and  July.  There 
are  exceptional  instances  in  a  long  series  of  years  where  tor- 
nadoes have  been  reported  in  every  month  of  the  year.  They 
may,  and  sometimes  do,  occur  in  some  of  the  Southern  States 
during  the  winter  and  spring  months.  Taking  the  whole 
United  States  together  and  averaging  the  dates  of  occurrence 
for  a  long  series  of  years  (over  200)  it  is  found  that  the 
region  of  greatest  frequency  embraces  the  States  of  Kansas, 
Illinois,  Missouri,  and  Iowa.  Of  all  the  States  in  the 
Union,  Kansas  and  Missouri  rank  the  highest  in  regard  to 
frequency. 

HURRICANES. 

Although  it  seems  hardly  necessary  to'define  the  hurricane, 
it  will  perhaps  be  well  to  state  that  as  here  considered  it  means  a 
straight  wind  of  extraordinary  velocity.  It  may,  and  frequently 
does,  occur  without  the  accompaniment  of  any  precipitation. 
On  the  summit  of  Mount  Washington,  White  Mountains, 
New  Hampshire,  a  measured  velocity  of  nearly  two  hundred 


14 


miles  per  hour  has  been  recorded.  On  the  summit  of  Pike  s 
Peak,  Rocky  Mountains,  Colorado,  a  measured  velocity  has 
several  times  exceeded  one  hundred  miles  per  hour.  On  the 
coast  of  the  Carolinas  maximum  measured  velocities  have 
ranged  from  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles 
per  hour.  In  the  Eastern  Rocky  Mountain  Slope  and  in 
the  Lake  Region  measured  velocities  are  sometimes  re- 
corded ranging  between  sixty  and  eighty  miles  per  hour. 
This  storm  may  be  known  as  the  Blizzard  of  the  Northwest, 
the  Chinook  of  the  Northern  Plateau,  the  Norther"  of  the 
Southern  Slope  and  Texas,  or  the  Simoon  of  the  Desert. 
Hurricanes  may  occur  at  any  hour  of  the  day  or  night  and 
in  any  month  of  the  year.  The  most  violent,  however,  take 
place  during  the  spring  and  autumn.  The  width  of  the  path 
of  the  storm  is  very  irregular  and  may  vary  from  many  rods 
to  many  miles.  In  either  case  the  velocity  at  all  points  within 
the  storm's  path  is  not  necessarily  the  same  ;  in  fact  such  a 
condition  never  occurs.  The  duration  of  the  storm  is  also 
extremely  variable,  it  may  continue  for  only  a  few  minutes  or 
for  several  hours,  although  in  the  latter  case  the  maximum 
velocity  is  not  maintained  throughout  the  entire  period; 
on  the  contrary,  there  are  periods  of  recurrence  alternating 
with  decided  diminutions  of  the  highest  activity.  There  are 
perhaps  but  few  portions  of  the  country  altogether  free  from 
the  possibility  of  their  occurrence.  In  the  low  table-lands  of 
mountainous  regions,  where  most  of  the  country  is  extremely 
broken,  the  habitable  portions  are  shielded  from  the  power  of 
violent  wind-storms.  No  surface  currents  can  attain  any 
great  velocity  in  such  regions,  although  on  the  mountain 
peaks  and  elevated  plateaus  dangerous  hurricanes  at  times 
prevail. 

WHIRLWINDS. 

In  defining  these  disturbances  it  will  be  best  perhaps  to 
recall  the  occurrence,  on  a  warm,  dry  day,  of  the  formation 
of  a  dust-whirl  as  it  suddenly  bursts  upon  you  in  the  open 


'5 


street,  fairly  enveloping  your  body  with  fine  particles  of  dirt, 
straw,  leaves,  and  the  like.  Whirlwinds  suddenly  start  up 
from  some  barren,  sandy  spot  unduly  exposed  to  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun.  Over  a  small  surface  thus  exposed  the  air 
rapidly  rarifies,  and  ascensional  currents  form  which  move 
spirally  inward  and  upward,  carrying  dust,  leaves,  straws,  and 
sometimes  objects  of  considerable  weight.  The  whirlwind's 
path  has  a  diameter  of  several  feet  (sometimes  rods),  and  the 
direction  of  its  course  of  movement  is  decidedly  irregular, 
possibly  moving  toward  any  point  in  the  compass.  On  the 
sandy  plains  of  Arizona,  Southern  California,  and  Nevada 
these  phenomena  occur  with  great  frequency  during  the  sum- 
mer months.  Columns  of  whirling  sand,  sometimes  several 
in  a  group,  move  rapidly  over  the  surface.  A  whirlwind  is 
harmless  and  generally  of  but  a  few  moments'  duration.  In 
comparing  it  with  the  tornado  let  it  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
whirlwind  starts  from  the  earth's  surface,  extends  upward  and 
moves  onward,  not  leaving  the  earth,  being  solely  confined 
to  the  region  of  surface  currents,  while  the  tornado  forms  near 
the  superior  limit  of  the  lower  regions  of  the  atmosphere  and 
between  the  upper  and  lower  sets  of  currents,  or  the  currents 
prevailing  in  the  upper  and  lower  regions  of  the  atmosphere  ; 
the  former  currents  are  indicated  by  the  appearance  of  the  fine 
cirrus*  clouds  and  the  latter  by  the  heavy  cumulus  formations. 
From  this  lofty  seat  of  origin  the  tornado-cloud  gradually 
descends  to  the  earth  s  surface,  increasing  rapidly  in  size  and 
augmenting  in  power. 

WATERSPOUTS. 

These  disturbances  generally  form  at  a  considerable  height 
in  the  air,  although  at  times  they  seem  to  ascend  from  the 
water's  surface ;  that  is  to  say,  there  is  no  visible  agent  in- 
fluencing the  ascension  of  the  water,  but  of  course  in  every 

*  Cirrus  clouds  are  fibrous  or  woolly-looking.  Cumulus  clouds  are  convex  masses, 
piled  one  upon  another.  Stratus  clouds  are  spread  over  the  face  of  the  sky  evenly 
or  in  horizontal  layers.    Nimbus  is  a  name  given  to  ordinary  rain-clouds. 


instance  the  causative  power  is  from  above  and  in  the  latter 
case  near  the  water  s  surface.  When  I  speak  of  the  formation 
of  the  waterspout  at  a  considerable  height  in  the  air,  I  mean 
that  the  embodiment  of  the  whirl,  or  the  revolving  current  of 
air,  first  appears  as  a  dark  cloud  of  minutely  divided  particles 
of  water,  the  result  of  rapid  condensation,  of  course  in  the 
air  and  therefore  above  the  water.  The  swift  passage  of  the 
air  in  a  spirally  upward  motion  over  the  surface  of  the  water 
raises  it  in  the  form  of  spray  and  carries  it  upward  in  the 
center  of  the  whirling  cloud,  which  then  presents  the  appear- 
ance of  a  densely  opaque  body  and  conveys  an  impression 
to  the  eye  of  the  observer,  that  a  huge  column  of  water  is 
ascending  in  the  form  of  a  long  spout,  widening  gradually 
toward  the  top.  There  are  instances,  however,  where  the 
force  manifested  is  sufficient  to  raise  a  considerable  quantity 
of  water  several  hundred  feet  in  the  air.  Waterspouts  form 
during  periods  of  excessive  heat,  generally  in  the  afternoon 
and  at  or  near  the  hottest  part  of  the  day.  In  the  temperate 
zone  they  only  occur  during  summer  months.  They  are  of 
most  frequent  occurrence  in  the  region  of  calms  between  the 
tropics,  but  are  not  altogether  strange  sights  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  along  the  gulf  stream  south  of  parallel  40°  N. 
In  regard  to  motions  they  possess  both  a  rotary  and  pro- 
gressive action,  but  in  neither  do  they  manifest  a  perma- 
nency of  direction.  Waterspouts  cannot  be  considered  as 
altogether  harmless,  for  there  are  instances  where  vessels  have 
been  wrecked  by  them. 

HAILSTORMS 

Are  peculiar  atmospheric  disturbances  which,  in  regard  to 
the  dimensions  of  their  paths,  are  next  to  the  tornado  the 
most  circumscribed  of  all  storms  save  the  whirlwind.  They 
are  characterized  by  a  strange  cloud  formation  and  a  peculiar- 
ity of  precipitation  unlike  any  other  phenomena  in  the  cate- 
gory of  storms.    The  cloud  from  which  the  hail  falls  is  bas- 


7 


ket-shaped,  with  a  dark  and  portentous  exterior,  a  ragged  and 
ominous-looking  opening  at  the  bottom,  and  within  a  whirl- 
ing conglomeration  of  snow-flakes,  pellets  of  snow  and  ice, 
partly  formed  and  perfect  hailstones,  the  latter  of  an  almost 
infinite  variety  of  shapes.  The  hail-cloud  forms  between  the 
currents  of  the  upper  and  lower  regions  of  the  atmosphere 
and  moves  forward  in  the  plane  of  these  currents,  either 
within  or  just  above  the  upper  limit  of  the  lower  atmospheric 
regions,  where  it  finally  disappears  and  the  deposition  of  hail 
ceases.  The  path  of  the  storm,  as  indicated  by  the  distribution 
of  the  hailstones,  is  at  times  very  narrow,  although  the  range  of 
width  is  decidedly  inconstant,  varying  from  one  to  fifteen  miles. 
The  hailstorm  travels  quite  rapidly,  from  thirty  to  fifty  miles  per 
hour,  and  the  length  of  its  path  is  even  more  variable  than 
the  diameter,  ranging  as  it  does  from  ten  miles  to  two  hundred 
or  more.  The  direction  of  the  course  pursued  by  the  storm 
is  always  from  some  point  west  to  some  point  east.  It  may 
be  from  northwest  to  southeast  or  from  southwest  to  northeast. 
Hailstorms  may  occur  at  any  time  of  the  day  or  night,  although 
they  are  most  frequent  in  the  afternoon,  just  after  or  near  the 
hottest  part  of  the  day.  They  are  most  prevalent  in  that 
region  of  country  embraced  between  the  parallels  of  30°  and 
50°  N.  South  of  parallel  30°  N.  hailstorms  are  of  rare  oc- 
currence at  the  level  of  the  sea,  but  at  the  height  of  one  or 
two  hundred  feet  they  occur  more  frequently,  and  in  the 
mountains  of  British  India  they  are  very  common,  the  hail- 
stones being  usually  of  large  size.  Hailstorms  are  not  neces- 
sarily confined  to  the  land  areas,  but  may  and  frequently  do 
occur  over  large  and  small  bodies  of  water 

THUNDER-STORMS. 

These  phenomena  are  atmospheric  disturbances  of  great 
variability  of  extent  and  power.  They  are  always  accompanied 
by  such  manifestations  of  the  presence  of  electricity  as  are 
ordinarily  termed  thunder  and  lightning,  the  former  being 


i8 


entirely  consequent  upon  the  existence  of  the  latter.  Thun- 
der is  but  the  reverberation  of  the  concussion  produced  by 
the  inconceivably  rapid  propulsion  through  the  air  of  that 
physical  element  we  are  pleased  to  term  electricity.  Thunder- 
storms may  be  a  few  miles  or  several  hundred  in  extent,  and 
their  length  of  duration  is  quite  as  uncertain,  viz. :  from  a  few 
hours  to  one  or  more  days.  There  is  no  regular  time  of  day 
for  their  occurrence,  although  they  are  perhaps  more  fre- 
quent in  the  afternoon.  However,  they  may  occur  at  any 
time  during  the  day  or  night.  As  to  the  season  of  year,  sum- 
mer is  the  period  of  greatest  prevalency.  There  is  no  month 
of  the  year  entirely  free  from  them.  Whether  the  precipita- 
tion be  rain  or  snow  the  presence  of  electricity  has  still  been 
manifested  in  the  usual  form.  With  the  former  character  of 
condensation  of  vapor  the  evidence  of  electricity  is  .  most 
common,  while  with  the  latter  it  is  the  rare  exception.  As  re- 
gards geographical  distribution,  thunder-storms  are  most  fre- 
quent between  the  equator  and  parallel  40°  N.,  and  from  thence 
to  parallel  70°  N.  the  average  frequency  diminishes  with 
considerable  rapidity.  In  the  vicinity  of  parallel  80°  N.  it 
is  believed  they  never  occur,  although  this  in  the  main  is 
mere  supposition.  There  are  certain  portions  of  the  United 
States  where  thunder-storms  are  unusually  frequent  as  com- 
pared with  other  parts.  They  seldom  appear  in  the  Pacific 
Coast  States,  especially  California,  and  are  most  frequent  and 
violent  in  the  Eastern  Rocky  Mountain  Slope,  the  Lower 
Missouri  Valley,  and  in  the  Lake  Region. 

Having  briefly  outlined  the  characteristics  of  the  various 
classes  of  storms,  we  will  now  proceed  to  consider  more  in 
detail  the  most  important  (at  least  in  certain  respects)  of 
all  atmospheric  disturbances.  At  this  stage  of  our  inquiry  in 
regard  to  the  character  and  classes  of  storms,  I  presume  it 
will  be  admitted,  that  no  two  of  the  several  storms  defined,  at 
least  appear  to  be  alike.  There  are,  however,  points  of  re- 
semblance, but  in  some  these  features  are  stronger  than  in 


19 


others.  As  each  is  studied  more  carefully,  the  essential 
points  of  difference  will  be  more  clearly  contrasted.  It  is 
not  within  the  province  of  this  book  to  discuss  at  length  the 
points  of  difference  or  harmony,  nor  to  enter  into  an  intricate 
analysis  of  meteorological  phenomena  and  the  multiform  op- 
erations of  atmospheric  changes  attending  the  origin,  devel- 
opment, and  complete  formation  of  these  disturbances.  On 
the  contrary,  it  is  simply  desired  to  present  a  brief  but  com- 
prehensive resume  of  the  leading  features  of  storms,  as  known 
at  least  in  the  United  States,  if  not  in  North  America,  and  in 
particular  to  present  rather  a  minute  consideration  of  the 
peculiarities  of  tornadoes,  with  a  view  to  place  at  the  disposal 
of  the  people  most  interested^  the  facts  and  practical  results  of 
past  and  present  investigations  of  this  most  terrible  and  yet 
most  wonderful  and  interesting  of  storms,  the  dreaded  tornado. 

THE  TORNADO. 

What  is  a  tornado  ?  In  defining  this  storm  it  would  seem 
almost  a  necessity  to  rehearse  its  long  line  of  striking  charac- 
teristics, but  this  in  the  common  acceptation  of  the  term 
would  not  strictly  be  a  definition.  For  the  sake  of  brevity, 
we  will  state  that  the  tornado  is  that  form  of  atmospheric  dis- 
turbance which  takes  the  outward,  visible  fashion  or  figure  of 
a  funnel-shaped  cloud,  revolving  about  a  vertical  axis  from 
right  to  left*  with  an  inconceivably  rapid  movement  and  an 
immensity  of  power  almost  beyond  calculation. 

Conditions  of  Formation. — These  may  be  divided  into 
classes.  First,  those  within  the  reach  of  and  which  may  be 
known  or  investigated  by  an  isolated  observer.  Second,  those 
conditions  only  to  be  witnessed  and  analyzed  by  the  intelligent 
and  practiced  eye  of  the  student  of  the  weather  map.  To  the 
single  observer,  located  mayhap  at  his  farm  home,  the  work- 
shop, or  the  store,  there  are  important  atmospheric  conditions 
which  he  may  carefully  watch  and  study  with  profit,  viz. :  the 

*  As  you  would  turn  a  nut  onto  a  bolt,  point  downward. 


21 


gradual  setting  in  and  prolonged  movement  of  the  air  from  ; 

the  north  and  south  points  ;  the  gradual  but  continued  fall  j 
of  the  thermometer  with  a  prevalence  of  the  northerly  currents, 

or  a  rise  with  the  predominance  of  the  southerly.    If  the  north-  ; 

erly  currents  are  the  prevailing  air-movements  at  your  place  \ 

of  observation,  the  atmospheric  disturbance  is  forming  to  the  | 

southward,  but  if  the  prevailing  air-currents  are  from  the  ; 
south  the  storm  is  forming  to  the  northward  of  your  location. 

Carefully  study  cloud  development,  color  as  well  as  form,  also  ; 

manner  and  direction  of  approach.  The  approach  of  the  cirrus  ] 

cloud  (perhaps  at  a  height  of  six  to  eight  miles)  from  the  \ 

southwest  is  very  significant,  and  is  the  first  evidence  of  the  i 
gradual  but  certain  advance  of  the  upper  southwest  current, 

which  eventually  plays  so  important  a  part  in  the  development  ^ 

of  the  tornado-cloud.   Clouds  are  but  the  embodiment  of  air-  \ 

currents,  yet  they  are  full  of  meaning.    A  study  of  the  upper  j 

currents  of  the  atmosphere  would  be  impossible  without  their  j 

manifestations,  and  that,  too,  in  a  variety  of  forms.    Without  | 

cloud  formation,  the  face  of  the  sky  would  become  a  blank,  j 

and  intelligent  reasoning  thereof  a  superhuman  task,  \ 

Wind  direction,  temperature,  and  clouds  are  the  proper  j 

subjects  of  observation  and  thought  by  the  isolated  observer.  \ 

The  barometer  is  of  little  if  any  importance  in  this  line  of  in-  \ 

quiry.    If  you  cannot  compare  your  barometric  observations  ; 

with  those  taken  at  near  or  distant  points  and  at  the  same  .,' 

moment  of  actual  time,  they  are  of  no  practical  moment,  \ 

even  though  your  instrument  is  a  standard  one  and  your  cor-  \ 

rections  for  temperature  and  elevation  carefully  applied.   The  j 

storm  you  are  watching  for  (the  tornado)  is  an  extremely  ■ 

local  affair,  whereas  the  barometer  indicates  general  changes,  \ 

Note. — Photographs  of  tornadoes  and  tornado-clouds  are  rare.    We  "^^ 

have  the  reproductions  of  three  which  are  claimed  to  be  instantaneous  ; 

photographs,  but  the  majority  of  our  cloud  illustrations  are  sketches  \ 

from  memory,  most  of  them  by  persons  not  artists,  and,  while  the  col-  3 

lection  is  the  most  varied  and  perhaps  the  most  correct  ever  published,  1 

we  do  not  claim  for  it  any  higher  merit  than  these  facts  will  justify.  1 


22 


affecting  a  large  extent  of  country.  Your  instrument,  if  a 
standard,  does  not  lack  possession  of  the  delicate  sensitive- 
ness requisite  for  all  the  purposes  of  its  construction,  but  if  it 
were  placed  in  the  immediate  track  of  the  tornado-cloud,  it 
would  not  indicate  its  presence  until  the  crash  of  the  storm 
was  upon  the  instrument,  when  of  course  it  would  be  too 
late.  Barometrical  observations  appear  to  advantage  and  are 
absolutely  necessary  to  a  successful  consideration  of  the  mete- 
orological conditions  of  tornadoes  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
weather  map.  From  this  panoramic  view  of  the  situation  a 
vast  extent  of  country  can  be  most  carefully  watched  from 
hour  to  hour,  for  days,  weeks,  or  months.  Atmospheric  con- 
ditions on  opposite  sides  of  the  probable  course  of  the  storm 
can  be  watched  from  their  inception,  and  any  relation  easily 
detected  and  analyzed.  From  a  study  of  the  weather-map  it 
has  been  found  that  the  formation  of  what  is  termed  a  bar- 
ometric trough  or  elongated  area  of  low  pressure  (where  the 
barometer  stands  below  the  normal  for  that  region  at  the 
hour  of  observation)  precedes  the  occurrence  of  tornadoes  in 
the  Lower  Missouri  Valley  or  adjoining  States  to  the  south 
and  east.  This  low-pressure  area  assumes  the  form  of  an 
ellipse  and  generally  extends  from  southwest  to  northeast  be- 
tween northern  Texas  and  the  Upper  Lake  Region.  Such  a 
depression  may  lie  between  the  Central  Mississippi  Valley  and 
the  Lower  Lake  Region,  trending  northeastward  just  south  of 
Michigan  and  over  the  Ohio  Valley.  The  major  axis  *  of 
either  of  these  depressions  is  easily  estimated,  while  the  minor 
axis  may  be  stated  as  generally  varying  from  three  to  five 
hundred  miles.  To  the  north  of  the  major  axis,  even  to  a 
distance  of  several  hundred  miles,  the  winds  are  found  to 
proceed  from  any  or  all  points  between  northeast  and  north- 
west with  comparatively  low  temperatures,  accompanied  some- 
times by  a  cold  rain  or  even  snow.  South  of  the  major  axis, 
and  generally  to  a  greater  distance,  the  winds  come  from 


*  See  chart  No.  2,  facing  page  100  ;  also  illustrations  on  page  102. 


24 


any  or  all  points  between  southeast  and  southwest,  accom- 
panied by  comparatively  high  temperatures,  high  humidity, 
and  often  dashes  of  quite  heavy  rain. 

As  these  conditions  continue  to  prevail  there  is  a  growing 
contrast  of  temperature  to  the  north  and  south  of  the  major 
axis,  owing  to  the  long-continued  movement  of  the  atmos- 
phere from  opposite  directions,  such  movement  eventually  af- 
fecting the  disposition  of  air  in  the  warmer  regions  of  the 
extreme  south  and  likewise  the  colder  regions  of  the  extreme 
north.  The  contrast  of  temperature  now  naturally  increases 
with  marked  rapidity,  and  the  formation  of  clouds  com- 
mences in  earnest.  Huge  masses  of  dark  and  portentous 
appearance  bank  up  in  the  northwest  and  southwest  with 
amazing  rapidity,  and  soon  the  scene  becomes  one  of  awful 
grandeur.  The  struggle  for  mastery  in  the  opposing  cur- 
rents is  thus  indicated  by  the  gathering  cloud  formations. 
The  condensation  of  vapor  from  the  extremely  humid  south- 
erly currents  by  contact  with  the  augmenting  cold  of  their 
struggling  opponents  continues.  It  increases  rapidly.  Fi- 
nally, when  resistance  to  the  unstable  equilibrium  can  no 
longer  be  maintained  (controlled  by  the  rate  of  temperature 
change  and  rapidity  of  condensation),  the  opposing  forces  are, 
as  it  were,  broken  asunder,  followed  by  the  upward  rush  of 
huge  volumes  of  air.  The  outward  indication  of  this  event 
is  first  shown  in  the  whirling,  dashing  clouds  over  the  broken 
surface  of  the  heavy  bank  of  condensed  vapor,  forming  the 
background.  A  scene  not  easily  depicted  or  realized  by  one 
who  has  not  witnessed  it,  but  never  to  be  effaced  from  the 
memory  of  the  actual  observer.  There  is  an  awful  terror  in 
the  majesty  of  the  power  here  represented,  and  in  the  unnatu 
ral  movement  of  the  clouds,  which  affects  animals  as  well  as 
human  beings.  The  next  stage  in  the  further  development 
of  this  atmospheric  disturbance  is  the  gradual  descent  of  the 
funnel-shaped  cloud  from  a  point  apparently  just  beneath 
the  position  of  the  enactment  of  the  first  scene.    The  tornado 


2S 


is  now  before  us,  not  fully  developed,  but  soon  to  acquire 
that  condition  when  the  terrible  violence  of  its  power  will 
make  the  earth  tremble,  animals  terror-stricken,  and  men's 
hearts  quake  with  fear. 

PREMONITORY  SIGNS. 

On  the  day  of  the  storm,  and  for  several  hours  previous 
to  the  appearance  of  the  tornado-cloud,  the  indications  of  its 
probable  formation  and  approach  are  within  the  comprehen- 
sion of  any  ordinary  observer  and  can  readily  be  detected  by 
him.  A  sultry,  oppressive  condition  of  the  atmosphere  is 
thus  described  by  various  observers  as  follows  :  "1  really 
experienced  a  sickly  sensation  under  the  influence  of  the 
sun's  rays."  I  was  compelled  to  stop  work  on  account  of 
the  peculiar  exhaustion  experienced  from  physical  exertion." 
*'It  seemed  as  if  the  lightest  garments  that  I  could  put  on 
were  a  burden  to  me."  ''There  was  not  a  breath  of  air 
stirring. "  * '  The  air  at  times  came  in  puffs  as  from  a  heated 
furnace."  "  I  felt  a  want  of  breath,  the  air  frequently  appear- 
ing too  rarified  to  breathe  freely."  "I  was  starded  at  the 
sudden  and  continued  rise  in  the  thermometer,  especially  at 
this  season  of  the  year."  *'  In  the  forenoon  I  actually  wore 
an  overcoat,  but  shortly  after  dinner  I  put  on  my  straw  hat 
and  worked  in  my  shirt  sleeves."  I  noticed  a  remarkable 
change  in  the  temperature,  many  of  the  neighbors  spoke 
about  it  and  said  that  there  was  a  peculiar  feeling  about  the 
heat,  something  they  had  not  before  experienced  in  years." 
* '  It  was  terribly  oppressive  ;  it  seemed  as  if  the  atmosphere 
was  unusually  heavy  and  pressing  down  on  me  with  a  great 
weight." 

These  citations  clearly  indicate  the  character  of  this  pecu- 
liar sultriness.  Other  signs  equally  important  and  reliable 
may  be  found  in  the  development  and  peculiar  formation 
of  the  clouds  in  the  western  horizon.  Sometimes  these 
peculiar  clouds  extend  from  the  southwest  through  the  west 


26 


by  the  north  to  the  northeast.  More  frequently,  however, 
they  form  in  the  northwest  and  southwest,  sometimes  com- 
mencing, first  in  the  former  quarter  and  then  again  in  the 
latter,  but  in  either  case  they  are  equally  significant.  The 
marked  peculiarity  of  the  clouds  is  found  to  occur  not  only 
in  the  forin  but  in  the  color  and  character  of  development. 

The  sudden  appearance  of  ominous  clouds,  first  in  the 
southwest  and  then  almost  immediately  in  the  northwest  or 
northeast  (perhaps  the  reverse  in  the  order  of  their  appearance), 
generally  attracts  the  attention  of  the  most  casual  observer, 
and  frequently  overcomes  him  with  astonishment.  In  almost 
all  cases  these  premonitory  clouds  are  unlike  any  ordinary 
and  usual  formation.  If  they  are  light,  their  appearance  re- 
sembles smoke  issuing  from  a  burning  building  or  straw- 
stack,  rolling  upward  in  fantastic  shapes  to  great  heights. 
Again,  like  a  fine  mist  or  quite  white,  like  fog  or  steam. 
Some  persons  describe  these  light  clouds  as  at  times  appar- 
ently irridescent  or  glowing  as  if  from  their  irregular  surfaces 
a  pale,  whitish  light  was  cast. 

The  dark  clouds  at  times  present  a  deep,  greenish  hue, 
which  forebodes  the  greatest  evil  and  leaves  one  to  imagine 
quite  freely  of  dire  possibilities.  Again,  they  appear  jet  black 
from  center  to  circumference,  or,  in  a  change  of  form,  this 
deep-set  color  may  only  appear  at  the  center,  gradually  dimin- 
ishing in  intensity  as  the  outer  edges  of  the  cloud  or  bank  of 
clouds  are  approached.    Sometimes  these  dark  clouds,  instead 

Note. — The  following  three  pictures  are  of  the  great  tornado  at 
Ercildoun,  Chester  County,  Penn.,  July  i,  1877,  and  are  from  very 
rough  and  imperfect  sketches.  The  storm  formed  about  2:30  p.  M.  and 
passed  in  a  direction  nearly  due  east  for  about  twenty  miles,  injuring 
many  people  and  destroying  over  $40,000  of  property.  Width  of  track, 
1 50  to  300  feet.  Diameter  of  tornado-cloud,  50  to  75  feet.  It  is  de- 
scribed as  having  very  closely  resembled  a  balloon,  although  the 
sketches  do  not  disclose  that  fact.  A  balloon-shaped  cloud  is  repre- 
sented on  another  page  as  having  appeared  near  North  Vernon,  Ind., 
in  1883. 


27 


of  appearing  in  solid  and  heavy  masses,  roll  up  lightly,  but 
still  intensely  black,  like  the  smoke  from  an  engine  or  loco- 
motive burning  soft  coal.  They  have  been  described  as  of  a 
purple  or  bluish  tinge,  or  at  times  possessed  of  a  strange 
lividness.  Frequently  dark  green,  again  an  inky  blackness 
that  fairly  startles  you  with  its  intensity.  Many  observers  are 
at  a  loss  for  words  in  which  to  give  an  adequate  description 
of  the  terrible  scenes  and  simply  say  :  ''They  were  the  worst- 
looking  clouds  I  ever  saw,  perfectly  awful/'  Said  one 
observer,  ''The  clouds  seemed  to  be  boiling  up  like  muddy 


Tornado  at  Ercildoun,  Pa.,  July  1, 1877.  First  appearance.  See  note  on 
page  26  for  description. 


water,  the  upper  surface  of  the  cloud  reminding  me  of  the 
incessant  eddies  or  whirls  seen  in  the  muddiest  portions  of 
the  Missouri  River."  Other  observers  as  follows  :  "I  saw  two 
whirling  circles  of  lightish  gray  clouds  in  the  west ;  they 
were  acting  independently  of  each  other  and  moved  slowly 
inward  toward  each  other  from  opposite  directions.  The 
clouds  were  very  low,  seemed  to  be  on  the  earth,  the  wind 


28 


in  contrary  directions  across  the  face  of  the  western  sky 
and  surrounding  clouds  in  great  confusion/'  ''Observed 
clouds  moving  in  all  directions,  some  of  a  dark  green  color, 
others  white  as  steam/'  ''The  lower  end  of  the  cloud  was 
very  white,  like  fog."  "I  saw  a  great  smoke,  and  supposed  at 
first  it  was  a  fire. "  "I  saw  a  terrible  cloud  of  a  dark 
purplish  color."  *' There  was  a  peculiar  and  terrifying  look 
to  the  clouds."  "  I  saw  a  green-looking  cloud  in  the  north- 
west, surrounded  by  others  not  so  deep-set  in  color.  Under 
the  cloud  from  the  southwest,  there  came  a  large  number  of 
little  thunder-heads,  some  very  dark  but  others  as  white  as 
steam.  They  seemed  to  be  separated  and  running  very  low. 
I  never  saw  clouds  so  low  before.  Pretty  soon  they  began 
to  go  in  all  directions,  some  up,  some  down,  right  and  left, 
backwards  and  forwards.  I  next  saw  a  cloud  that  looked 
even  all  over  in  color  and  very  white,  the  edges  pretty  even. 
It  moved  remarkably  steady  and  seemed  to  be  right  under 
the  edge  of  the  cloud  from  the  southwest."  "The  clouds 
looked  as  if  a  mosquito-net  had  been  spread  out  over  the  sky." 
"  I  saw  clouds  tumbling  over  and  over  in  terrible  confusion." 
"I  noticed  a  strange  action  in  the  clouds  and  saw  a  cloud 
rolling  on  the  ground  coming  from  the  southwest."  "The 
ground  was  covered  with  white,  steamy-looking  clouds  that 
prevented  one  from  seeing  any  distance."  "Two  clouds, 
one  from  the  northwest  and  the  other  from  the  southwest 
seemed  to  meet,  and  after  meeting  passed  still  lower.  Above 
their  place  of  meeting  black  smoke  appeared  in  very  pecu- 
liar shape."  "  The  air  presented  a  very  peculiar  appearance, 
it  seemed  to  be  in  different-shaded  strata  and  quite  marked. 
' '  At  the  bottom  of  the  cloud  a  hazy  appearance  rose  up, 
obstructing  the  view."  "Two  clouds  came  together,  one 
from  the  southwest  and  the  other  from  the  northwest  ;  the 
latter  was  the  highest,  and  the  former  the  heaviest  and  looked 
the  worst."  "  A  heavy  cloud  spread  out  before  us  to  a  width 
of  about  six  hundred  feet,  and  as  black  as  night. " 


29 


The  peculiar  action  of  the  clouds  while  they  are  forming  is 
another  interesting  and  significant  feature  which  should  be 
carefully  watched.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  clouds 
form,  move  about,  and  disappear  without  causing  the  slightest 
remark,  or  perhaps  thought,  from  the  casual  or  even  the 
interested  observer.  In  the  event  of  a  thunder-storm  or  hail- 
storm the  movement  and  disposition  of  the  clouds  are  not 
looked  upon  with  fear  or  as  possessed  of  power  to  create 
great  havoc,  but  on  the  occasion  of  a  tornado  the  formation 
and  movement  of  the  clouds  strike  most  persons  almost 


Tornado  at  Ercildoun,  Pa.,  July  1,  1877.   Later  appearance.  See  note  on 
page  26  for  description. 


dumb  with  fear;  there  seems  to  be  some  strange  connection 
between  the  almost  .simultaneous  appearance  of  clouds  in 
the  southwest  and  northwest,  possessing  as  they  do  such 
unusually  threatening  forms. 

As  they  approach  from  opposite  directions  they  are  sud- 
denly thrown  into  the  greatest  confusion;  breaking  up,  as  it 
were,  into  small  portions,  which  dash  pell-mell  over  each  other 
and  in  every  direction ;   now  darting    toward  the  earth, 


30 


now  rushing  upward  to  considerable  heights  like  sky- 
rockets, or  at  moderate  elevations  rolling  over  each  other 
in  a  well-developed  whirl.  An  observer,  in  describing  the 
approach  of  the  clouds  from  the  southwest  and  northwest, 
stated  that  they  ''came  together  with  a  terrific  crash,  as  if 
thrown  from  the  mouths  of  cannons. "  Generally,  following 
closely  upon  the  existence  of  this  condition,  the  funnel-shaped 
tornado-cloud  appears  against  the  western  sky,  moving 
boldly  to  the  front  from  without  this  confused  mass  of  flying 
clouds.  As  the  tornado-cloud  advances  these  scuds  continue 
to  play  about  its  top  and  sides,  constituting  a  characteristic 
feature  of  the  scene. 

Another  and  invariable  sign  of  the  tornado's  approach  is  a 
heavy,  roaring  noise,  which  augments  in  intensity  as  the  tor- 
nado-cloud advances.  This  roaring  is  compared  to  the  pas- 
sage of  a  heavily  loaded  freight  train  moving  over  a  bridge 
or  through  a  deep  pass  or  tunnel.  To  the  roaring  of  a  rail- 
road train  such  as  is  heard  on  damp  mornings  when  the 
sound  is  very  clear  and  loud.  The  sound  coming  from  the 
rapid  movement  of  a  large  number  of  empty  box  cars  is  ac- 
counted rather  peculiar  and  quite  noticeable.  At  times  the  roar- 
ing has  been  so  violent  that  persons  have  compared  it  to  the 
simultaneous  ''rush  of  10,000  trains  of  cars.''  Of  course, 
there  is  no  importance  to  be  attached  to  the  exact  number 
here  given,  it  being  used  in  a  figurative  sense  and  is  quite 
likely  exaggerated.  Again,  the  roaring  is  likened  to  the 
low  rumbling  of  distant  thunder.  The  varying  intensity  of 
the  roar  as  here  represented  is,  in  the  main,  due  to  the  lack 
of  uniformity  in  the  positions  of  the  yarious  observers  with 
respect  to  the  advancing  tornado-cloud.  Those  situated 
nearest  the  cloud,  other  things  being  equal,  experience  the 
loudest  roar,  while  to  those  at  greater  distances  the  noise  is 
proportionally  weaker.  In  any  event,  however,  the  noise 
is  sufficiently  peculiar  and  distinct  to  create  alarm,  and  as  a 
means  of  warnijig  should  not  be  overlooked  under  any  pretext. 


31 


How  TO  Benefit  by  Signs. — In  order  to  be  prepared  for 
the  possible  appearance  of  a  tornado,  so  far  at  least  as  the 
above  indications  are  concerned,  let  every  person  situated 
in  those  regions  of  country  where  the  tornado  is  of  yearly 
occurrence  commence  (to-day  is  none  too  soon)  to  carefully 
observe  and  record  the  daily  changes  in  the  face  of  the  sky, 
the  variations  of  temperature,  the  direction  of  the  wind  and 


Tornado  at  Ercildouii,  Pa.,  July,  1,  1877.   Last  appearance.    See  note  on 
page  26  for  description. 


the  character  and  development  of  clouds.  We  do  not  mean 
that  any  person  should  devote  all  or  most  of  his  time  to  this 
work  of  observation,  and  possibly  not  even  all  of  his  spare 
time.  For  the  sake  of  regularity  and  uniformity  we  will 
suggest  certain  hours  for  regular  work  of  this  nature,  viz. :  7 
A.  M.  and  2  and  9  p.  m.  These  hours  are  not  altogether 
arbitrary,  but  there  is  a  reasonable  amount  of  prudence  in 
their  selection,  looking  to  a  proper  and  successful  use  of  the 
results  of  your  labor. 

Should  the  violence  of  a  storm  be  unusually  marked  during 
either  the  hours  of  the  forenoon  or  afternoon,  or  even  in  the 


32 


night,  it  would  be  advisable  to  increase  the  number  of  hours 
for  observation  and  record,  possibly  making  them  every  hour 
or  half  hour,  or  even  at  shorter  intervals,  as  the  importance 
of  the  case  demands.  By  this  means  of  frequent  observa- 
tion every  feature  of  the  storm  would  become  the  sub- 
ject of  inquiry  and  the  most  important  results  would  be 
attained.  For  purposes  of  investigation  of  this  class  of 
storms  your  observations  need  not  continue  throughout  the 
entire  year,  at  least  in  the  Northern  and  Western  States, 
although  such  a  length  of  record  would  by  no  means  fall 
amiss  of  great  value.  Yearly  records  will  pay.  However, 
observations  should  commence  without  fail  by  the  istof  April, 
and  continue  unremittingly  until  at  least  the  last  of  Septem- 
ber. Observations  through  the  autumn  can  be  maintained 
with  profit.  It  will  be  a  valuable  adjunct  to  this  work  of 
regular-hour  records  if  a  summary  of  miscellaneous  phe- 
nomena is  kept  Enter  the  dates  of  occurrence  and  im- 
portant particulars  of  such  phenomena  as  auroras,  mirage, 
meteors,  lunar  and  solar  halos,  prairie  and  forest  fires;  the 
migration  of  birds  and  insects;  the  leafing  and  blossoming 
of  trees,  flowers,  and  shrubs;  droughts,  excessive  rainfalls, 
earthquakes,  zodiacal  light,  frosts  and  the  formation  of  ice. 
The  great  importance  of  systematic  observation  and  record 
is  urged  with  much  earnestness,  particularly  in  the  tornado 
districts  and  during  the  tornado  season,  but  further  detail 
is  omitted  in  this  place  and  the  student  and  volunteer 
observer  are  warmly  recommended  to  examine  the  tornado  cir- 
cular of  the  Signal  Service,  which  is  printed  in  full  at  the  end 
of  the  book.  It  contains  234  questions  and  suggestions, 
under  eighteen  different  headings,  and  constitutes  the  most 
complete,  as  well  as  the  most  compact,  scheme  of  instruction 
ever  compiled  for  the  purpose. 

Character  of  Tornado-Cloud  and  Attending  Motions. — 
The  tornado-cloud  is,  genei;ally  speaking,  funnel-shaped, 
that  is  to  say,  it  tapers  from  the  top  downward,  not  always 


33 


in\  the  same  degree  with  every  appearance  of  the  cloud, 
bat  the  lower  end  of  it  (the  part  nearest  the  eanh)  is  in- 
vairiably  the  smallest.  Whatever  the  inclination  of  the 
central  axis  of  the  cloud  to  the  vertical  or  plumb  line,  the  lowest 
erid  is  the  narrov/est  and  nearest  the  earth.  As  seen  in  differ- 
ent positions  and  stages  of  development  by  various  observers, 
Icpcated  differently,  the  tornado-cloud  has  been  called  :  '*bal- 
l())on-shaped  * '  basket-shaped  * '  egg-shaped  *  *  trailing 
oji  the  ground  like  the  tail  of  an  enormous  kite  of  bulb- 
ejus  form;"  *Mike  an  elephant's  trunk,'*'  etc.,  etc.  In  the 
majority  of  instances,  however,  observers  describe  the  cloud 
as  appearing  like  an  upright  funneL    When  the  tip  end  of 


Tornado-cloud  ivhich  passed  near  Garnett,  Kansas,  at  5:30  r.  tt,  April  26, 
1884.  From  au  iiistautaueous  pUotograpIu 


34 


the  cloud  reaches  the  earth,  the  violence  of  its  whirl  creates  a 
powerful  suction  over  a  small  portion  of  the  surface,  upon 
which  there  is  immediately  formed  a  peculiar  cloud  of  dust, 
and  finely  divided  debris,  around  which  play  small  gatl(ier- 
ings  of  condensed  vapor.  To  all  appearances  now,  the 
tornado-cloud  has  two  heads,  one  on  the  surface  of  ihe 
earth  and  the  other  in  the  sky,  the  bodies  of  each  joimVig 
in  mid-air  and  tapering  both  ways  with  the  smallest  diamdter 
at  their  junction.  In  other  words,  the  cloud  now  assumes 
the  shape  of  an  hour-glass  and  the  lower  portion,  or  tjiat 
assuming  the  form  of  an  inverted  funnel,  displays  an  ex- 
traordinary violence.  The  extreme  fury  and  the  tremendous 
power  of  the  tornado-cloud  are  now  experienced,  and  nojth-^ 
ing  is  able  to  stay  the  awful  force  of  its  onward  march.  This 
last  and  most  fatal  form  of  the  tornado-cloud  is  fortunately  not 
a  constant  feature  of  Che  storm.  The  tornado-cloud  is  con- 
stantly changing  from  the  hour-glass  form  to  that  of  the 
upright  funnel  or  some  other  intermediate  shape  previously 
referred  to. 

The  various  gradations  of  form,  not  any  of  which,  however, 
affect  the  stereotyped  relation  between  the  size  of  top  and 
bottom,  number  some  twenty-five  or  thirty,  so  far  as  I  have 
been  able  to  gather  information  upon  this  point.  These 
variations  of  form  are  quite  important  in  a  critical  study  of 
the  tornado.  They  depend  upon  the  peculiar  movements 
of  the  whirling  currents  of  air  within  and  about  the  cloud 
vortex,  the  direction  of  the  currents  being  outlined  to  the 
eye  by  the  singular  disposition  of  the  rapidly  condensing 
masses  of  vapor.  The  characteristic  motions  of  the  tornado- 
cloud  number  four,  and  are  described  as  follows  : — 

No.  L  is  called  the  whirling  or  gyratory  motion  of  the  tor- 
nado-cloud, which  is  invariably  from  right  to  left,  or  against 
the  course  of  the  sun.  From  the  peculiar  character  of  the 
formation  of  the  tornado-cloud,  this  motion  is  in  all  prob- 
ability the  first  evidence  of  the  existence  of  the  cloud,  and 


35 


shotald  therefore  be  .placed  first  in  order  of  consideration. 
Above  all  other  motions,  this  is  attended  with  the  greatest 
violjence,  and  its  velocity  of  movement  is  far  in  excess  of  any  of 
the  others.  This  gyratory  motion  forms  what  is  termed  the 
vortex  of  the  tornado-cloud,  within  which  the  velocity  of  the 
centripetal  currents  of  air  is  almost  beyond  conception. 
Malny  efforts  have  been  made,  but  most  of  them  altogether 
fruitless,  to  estimate  the  rate  of  progress  of  these  currents,  and 
velocities  ranging  from  roo  to  800,  and  even  1,000  miles 
per  hour,  have  been  deduced;  the  two  latter  are  the  ex- 
treiiies  that  have  been  ventured  upon  and  of  course  are  not 
reliable,  while  in  the  majority  of  instances  more  trustworthy 
determinations  have  ranged  between  100  and  500  miles  per 
hour.  Theoretical  velocities  of  over  2,000  miles  per  hour, 
based  upon  certain  assumed  atmospheric  conditions,  have 
been  deduced.  Such  velocities  are  mathematically  possible, 
but  not  meteorologically  probable. 

The  uncertainty  in  computing  the  velocity  of  centripetal 
currents  arises  from  the  difficulty  attending  the  acquirement 
of  the  requisite  data.  In  all  carefully  conducted  investiga- 
tions heretofore  made,  there  has  unfortunately  occurred  such 
a  long  interval  between  the  happening  of  the  storm  and  the 
arrival  of  the  person  authorized  to  commence  the  work,  that 
valuable  and  satisfactory  results  in  this  direction  were  pre- 
cluded. It  is  always  of  prime  importance  to  ascertain 
definitely  what  portion  of  a  building  or  other  object  was  first 
struck  by  the  wind  in  order  to  determine  the  configuration 
and  inclination  of  the  exposed  surface.  As  a  rule  such 
examination  is  rendered  next  to  impossible  by  the  rapidity 
with  which  devastated  districts  recover  from  the  violence  of 
the  storm.  This  fact  is  a  most  praiseworthy  and  well- 
deserved  commentary'  on  the  exemplary  industry  and  deter- 
mined spirit  of  the  people  of  the  Lower  Missouri  Valley, 
With  the  gyratory  motion  of  the  tornado-cloud,  objects  are 
drawn  inward  to  the  center  of  the  storm  and  then  carried 


36 


violently  upward  by  a  spirally  inward  and  upward  motion 
which  fairly  crushes  and  grinds  into  pieces  buildings,  trees, 
and  whatever  else  falls  in  the  line  of  the  advancing  cloud. 
The  spirally  upward  motion  throws  the  ascending  debris  iri  a 
circular  manner  outward  at  the  top  of  the  tornado-cloud. 
This  debris,  when  beyond  the  central  whirl  of  the  cloud,  fillls 
to  the  earth,  but  in  such  a  manner  and  so  disposed  as  to 
indicate  the  character  of  the  force  which  acted  upon  it 


Tornado  near  Redstone,  DaTl.sonCo.,  xvakota^  Aug.  28,  1884.  From  asketcli 
by  J.  H.  Nott.  See  o^>i>osite  pafre.  These  two  pictures  of  the  same  storm,  made 
20  miles  apart  in  aiMoiiiing  counties  hy  different  pei-sons  having  no  knowledge 
of  each  other,  are  valuable  conhnnatious  ol  one  another. 


No.  II.  is  called  the  progressive  motion  of  the  tornado- 
cloud,  the  motion  which  determines  the  cloud's  track  from 
one  point  to  another.  The  rate  of  progressive  velocity  ranks 
next  in  order  to  the  velocity  of  motion  No.  L,  although  it  is 
at  all  times  far  below  the  high  degree  of  the  latter. 

The  rate  of  progress  of  the  tornado-cloud  is  subject  to 
great  variability  throughout  the  path  of  any  one  storm,  al- 
though on  the  average  tornado-clouds  possess  a  moderately 
uniform  velocity  of  progression.  Some  observers  have  indi- 
cated the  movement  by  the  following  expressions:  ''All  in 
an  instant"     ''Gone   in  a  moment''     "Quicker  than 


37 


chonght'^  "  Without  a  moment's  warning/*  It  moved  no 
fester  than  a  horse  gently  galloping."  '  *  I  just  saw  what  it  was 
and  then  all  was  over."  Before  I  had  time  to  turn  about 
in  my  tracks  it  flashed  by  me/'  It  seemed  to  remain  almost 
motionless,  as  if  held  to  the  ground  by  some  mysterious  force." 
**I  shuddered,  held  my  breath,  and  the  monster  had  van- 
ished."   *' It  seemed  to  move  no  fester  than  I  could  run." 


Toirodo  clouaaaseeiiatllowarcL  Miner  Co.,  lKikota»  Ang.  28.1884.  Photo- 
graphed by  F.  N.  RohiBSon.  The  clond  passed  22  niUea  west  of  aim  in  a  soiith- 
easferly  direction,  remaining  in  sight  over  two  boui-s.  Several  people  were 
lulIod»  and  ali  property  in  the  path  was  destroyeiL 


These  estimations  of  velocity  are  not  to  be  taken  alto- 
gether literally.  The  circumstances  under  which  the  im- 
pressions were  received  must  be  considered,  viz.:  undue 
excitement  or  abject  terror.  However,  the  comparative  re- 
sults are  important,  and  to  a  certain  extent  reliable. 
Through  them,  the  reader  will  at  least  not  be  led  astray  in  his 
conceptions  of  the  awful  grandeur  of  the  panorama,  or  fall 
into  the  fatal  mistake  of  encouraging  a  belief  that  the  tor- 
nado is  not  what  the  united  experience  of  all  observ'ers  has 
portrayed  it. 


38 


Such  data  will  not  answer,  however,  to  figure  on  very 
closely,  but  the  items,  average  diameter  of  cloud,  actual  time 
(local  or  standard),  and  measured  distances,  must  be  care^ 
fully  obtained  before  an  approach  to  accurate  calculations 
can  be  secured.  Reliable  data  are  very  difficult  to  obtain, 
especially  time.  This  fact  should  be  thoroughly  appre- 
ciated by  observers  and  every  reasonable  effort  made  by  them 
to  examine  their  clocks  or  watches  upon  the  approach  'and 
passage  of  the  tornado-cloud.  Generally  speaking,  it  is  a 
good  habit  to  form,  of  jotting  down  in  some  place  of  rfeady 
reference  the  hour,  day,  month,  and  year  of  nolable 
eventSe  In  regard  to  this  matter  of  time,  so  far  as  past  de- 
terminations can  be  valued,  the  progressive  velocity  of  the 
tornado-cloud  is  variously  estimated  at  from  twenty-five  to 
seventy  miles  per  houn  The  former  is  perhaps  too  low  and 
the  latter  quite  likely  too  high,  and  although  in  both  in- 
stances they  represent  the  extremes,  yet  either  of  the  above 
velocities  may  have  existed  for  short  intervals.  The  general 
average  is  probably  about  forty  miles  per  hour. 

No,  III.  is  termed  the  rising  and  falling  motion  of  the 
tornado-cloud,  the  character  of  which  finds  definition  in  the 
following  expressions  from  various  witnesses:  *'The  top  of 
the  cloud  seemed  to  pop  up  and  down,  and  then  to  rush  for- 
ward." **It  bounded  over  the  ground  like  a  ball."  It 
was  the  strangest  jumping  and  flopping  object  I  ever  saw." 

At  times  it  seemed  to  lash  the  earth  in  terrific  fury  with  its 
huge  tail."  ''It  came  along,  popping  up  and  down  in  a 
most  fantastic  way."  ''Rising  up  like  the  uncoiling  of  a 
huge  rope,  it  cut  loose  from  the  earth  and  passed  over  us 
with  a  horribly  whizzing  sound. "  ' '  Ever  and  anon  it  would 
shoot  directly  upward  from  the  earth,  sometimes  with  great 
rapidity,  and  then  again  quite  slowly,  each  time  dashing  to 
the  surface  with  apparently  renewed  vigor."  It  is  perhaps 
clearly  seen  that  this  is  a  distinct  motion  with  striking  pecu- 
liarities which  define  its  character.    Sometimes,  upon  the 


39 


liftilig  of  the  tornado-cloud  from  the  earth,  it  does  not  again 
desrt:end  for  a  distance  of  several  miles,  at  times  making  the 
retifm  movement  or  descension  twenty  or  thirty  miles  distant, 
the(  intervening  space  proving  a  complete  blank  in  its  track. 
More  frequently,  however,  the!5e  gaps  are  from  one  to  five 
miles  in  length. 

While  the  tornado-cloud  is  traversing  the  atmosphere  at 
some  considerable  distance  above  the  earth,  it  may  reach 
down  so  low  as  to  just  skim  over  the  tops  of  the  highest 
trees;  descend  to  a  level  with  the  roofs  of  buildings,  simply 
scaling  off  the  shingles  in  spots  or  entirely  on  one  side,  leav- 
ing the  roof-boards  and  rafters  unmoved;  removing  the  tops 
of  chimneys ;  taking  out  all  the  fans  in  the  wheel  of  a  wind- 
mill and  leaving  every  portion  (even  the  tail)  of  the  re- 
mainder of  the  mill  unharmed  ;  take  off  the  cornice  without 
disturbing  the  remainder  of  the  roof;  removing  simply  the 
top  board  of  a  five-board  fence,  or  one  or  two  of  the  top 
rails  of  an  ordinary  rail  fence.  The  tornado-cloud  may, 
however,  remain  at  a  perfectly  safe  distance  throughout  its 
aerial  course,  and  where  it  may  be  seen  at  a  great  height, 
moving  solitary  and  alone,  like  a  huge  balloon.  While  in 
this  condition  it  has  not  a  few  times  been  unwittingly  taken 
for  the  latter  object,  but  the  mystery  and  sensation  were  en- 
tirely dispelled  when  the  news  came  in  from  the  surrounding 
country  of  the  frightful  power  of  this  now  silent  monster. 

There  is  still  another  condition,  which  the  fearful  aeronaut 
may  assume  in  his  flighty  movements.  Upon  rising  fiom 
the  earth  and  passing  through  a  few  uncertain  struggles,  ap- 
parently to  decide  as  to  whether  the  final  direction  shall  be 
up  or  down,  the  tornado-cloud  is  ultimately  lost  sight  of  in 
the  surrounding  clouds,  and  re-appears  suddenly  again  at  its 
point  of  descension,  or  perhaps  only  to  remain  at  a  safe  dis- 
tance. 

No.  IV.  is  called  the  zigzag  motion,  or  swaying  from  side 
to  side  of  the  central  line  of  cloud  movement.    This  motion 


41 


is  sometimes  quite  suddenly  performed,  but  generally  it  is  a 
moderately  slow  movement  and  one  that  can  be  watched  and 
easily  identified.  It  seems  to  occur  most  frequently  just  as 
the  tornado-cloud  touches  the  earth  in  completing  the  last  act 
of  motion  No.  III.  In  completing  the  extent  of  a  single  act 
of  this  motion,  the  toniado-cloud  will  diverge  about  an  equal 
distance  on  either  side  of  the  central  line  of  movement, 
though  these  tangents  to  the  major  axis  are  not  necessarily  of 
equal  length. 

At  the  commencement  of  this  motion  the  tornado-cloud 
always  moves  first  to  the  left  (N.  N.  E. )  and  then  to  the  right 
(E.  S.  E.)  forming  an  obtuse  angle  on  the  north  side  of  the 
major  axis.  On  the  return  movement,  the  cloud  may  or  may 
not  cross  the  major  axis  (to  E,  S.  E.).  If  it  does,  it  will  then 
form  a  similar  obtuse  angle  on  the  south  side  of  the  major 
axis.  This  zigzag  movement,  first  from  one  side  and  then 
from  the  other  of  the  central  line  of  progressive  action,  may 
continue  for  several  miles^  or  it  may  cut  short  its  existence 
after  the  first  few  moves.  The  regularity  of  this  peculiar  ac- 
tion appears  to  depend  upon  indraughts  from  the  south  side 
of  the  major  a^^is  of  violent  currents  of  air,  which  frequently 
advance  (only  from  the  south  side)  and  give  evidence  of 
their  existence  by  swaths  or  narrow  paths  of  destruction  (al- 
ternating with  spaces  of  no  damage)  cut  inward  toward  and 
joining  with  the  central  line  or  track.  The  tornado-cloud 
may,  upon  the  return  movement  (whether  executed  upon  the 
north  or  south  side  of  the  major  axis,  it  matters  not),  fail  to 
cross  it,  but  upon  reaching  it,  continue  onward  in  the  central 
line  of  movement  to  the  northeast 

The  distance  traveled  by  the  tornado-cloud  in  departing 
from  the  major  axis,  *  either  to  the  north  or  south,  is  gener- 
ally subject  to  considerable  variability,  ranging  from  forty  or 
fifty  yards  to  nearly  as  many  rods.  While  executing  this  zigzag 
motion  itvery  frequently  happens  that  the  tornado-cloud  simply 
skims  over  the  earth  without  manifesting  its  extreme  violence. 


42 


Building  Spots.— In  regard  to  the  matter  of  buildiings, 
the  question  may  be  asked  whether  there  is  not  some  choice 
in  a  building  spot,  with  a  view  to  safety  from  the  viol  ence 
of  the  tornado-cloud.  Many  persons  have  thought  that  if 
their  house  or  barn  was  perched  upon  some  high  "  divide," 
or  on  the  brow  of  a  steep  decline,  in  fact  upon  any  mai:ked 
rise  above  the  surrounding  level,  the  tornado-cloud  by  reason 
of  some  mysterious  effort  of  clemency  would  rise  from  the 
earth  and  pass  over  them.  This  is  a  careless  and  unreason- 
able supposition  when  the  facts  are  known.  It  does  not 
seem  to  occur  to  the  mind  of  an  observer  that  there  is  no 
reason  why  the  tornado-cloud  should  not  follow  the  rolling 
surface  as  well  as  the  plain.  The  tornado-cloud  pursues  a 
general  course  to  the  northeast  without  regard  to  the  charac- 
ter of  the  earth's  surface,  and  if  your  buildings  are  in  the 
line  of  its  destructive  path,  whether  upon  a  hill,  in  a  valley,  or 
within  a  ravine,  they  are  subject  to  its  violence.  Western  towns 
as  a  rule  are  not  built  upon  high  *  divides,"  but  are  more 
frequently  sheltered  between  neighboring  hills.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  farm  buildings,  it  being  the  prevailing  cus- 
tom to  select  building  spots  along  the  low  bottoms  of  a 
stream  for  convenience  to  water  and  timber,  and  for  protec- 
tion from  the  continued  heavy  winds  that  break  over  the 
open  prairies. 

From  the  above  facts  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  very  little 
opportunity  offered  the  tornado-cloud  to  display  its  violence 
on  the  hill-tops,  even  though  it  were  so  disposed.  Repeated 
investigations  have  shown  that  buildings  were  destroyed  with 
as  great  violence  and  completeness  upon  high  lands  as  upon 
low  lands,  but  the  largest  number  in  valleys  because  of  the 
facts  above  cited.  In  many  instances  the  funnel-cloud  has 
passed  from  one  ridge  to  another,  doing  damage  on  both, 
but  skipping  the  intervening  depression.  Again,  it  has  fol- 
lowed high  '  ^  divides  "  for  several  miles  where  they  coincided 
with  its  general  course  of  movement.    Ridges  and  valleys 


43 


are  almost  invariably  crossed  at  right  angles  when  their 
courses  are  from  northwest  to  southeast^ 

Electricity. — ^The  rain  and  hail  which  sometimes  pre- 
cede and  at  other  times  follow  the  tornado-cloud,  but  always 
accompany  the  heavy  clouds  which  form  in  the  north  and 
west,  are  not  always  but  generally  attended  by  lightning  ; 
somietimes  most  violent  manifestations,  and  then  again  but 
occasional  flashes.  The  most  terrific  displays  are  reported 
during  the  heavy  precipitation  which  often  occurs  after  the 
tornado-cloud  has  passed,  some  ten  to  twenty  minutes. 
Very  often  its  darting  flash  is  observed  in  the  dark  clouds 
which  begin  to  rise  above  the  western  horizon  an  hour  or 
more  before  the  storm.  The  relations  of  electricity  to  the 
tornado  are  so  fully  and  so  conclusively  set  forth  in  the 
''Scientific  Resume,"  printed  at  pages  147,  etc.,  that  further 
examination  of  that  particular  point  is  omitted  here. 

PROTECTION, 

If  you  have  a  tornado-cave  or  a  dug-out,  get  into  it  with 
your  family  and  your  treasures  before  the  storm  reaches  you  ; 
if  you  have  no  such  means  of  retreat  and  cannot  get  away 
from  the  storm,  go  into  your  cellar  and  get  as  close  to  the 
west  wall  as  possible,  ne:ver  go  to  the  east  side  of  a  cellar  or  of 
any  other  ihiclosed  space  in  any  building  toward  which  the 
tornado  is  approaching;  always  seek  the  west  side,  towards 
THE  STORM.  Frequently  life  may  be  saved  by  timely  flight 
in  the  rig&  direction,  A  tornado  travels  from  southwest  to 
northeast stand  facing  it  as  it  approaches  ;  if  it  is  going 
to  the  right  of  you,  run  to  the  left ;  if  it  is  going  to  the  left  of 
you,  run  to  the  right  ;  never  run  towards  the  storm  nor  with  it, 

ALWAYS  RUN  TO  THE  NORTHWARD  OR  SOUTHWARD  AT  A  RIGHT 
ANGLE  FROM  IT,  GIVING  THE  BENEFIT  OF  DOUBT  IN  FAVOR  OF  THE 

NORTH.  Read  attentively  the  small  print  following  for  details 
in  regard  to  saving  life,  property,  and  live-stock. 


44 


Means  of  Protection. — First  in  regard  to  life.  How  can  you  save 
your  life  or  avoid  injury  ?  In  regard  to  this  question  much,  if  not 
everything,  depends  upon  the  manner  and  in  what  direction  you 
7nove^  together  with  the  distance  of  the  tornado-cloud,  its  direction, 
and  the  kind  of  motion  prevailing  at  the  instant  you  determine  upon 
changing  your  location. 

We  will  now  suppose  the  various  conditions,  and  proceed  to  poi4t  out 
the  necessary  action  in  each  instance.  In  all  cases  it  is  granted  f(ir  the 
sake  of  convenience  in  illustration,  that  you  are  in  front  of  or  situated 
directly  in  the  line  of  the  advancing  tornado-cloud.  Under  thes(^  cir- 
cumstances if  No.  II.,  or  the  progressive  motion  of  the  cloud  is  prevailing, 


c. 


and  your  distance  from  it  is,  say,  eighty  rods  or  more,  move  directly 
and  with  all  possible  dispatch  to  the  north.  Whenever  this  motion  is 
prevailing  always  run  to  the  north,  unless  in  so  doing  you  would  be 
obliged  to  cross  the  entire  path  of  the  storm.    A  sharp  glance  to  the 


45 


westward  will  tell  yon  whether  you  are  about  on  the  southern  edge  of 
the  probable  path  of  the  tornado-cloud,  or  more  to  the  north.  If  in  the 
center  or  half-way  between  the  center  and  the  southern  edge,  your 
chances  are  best  in  a  direct  course  to  the  north.  If  further  to  the  south, 
move  directly  and  very  rapidly  to  the  south,  bearing  slightly  east.  In 
no  event  should  you  ever  run  directly  to  the  east  or  northeast.  Sup- 
pose the  tornado-cloud  to  be  distant  from  you  (W.  or  S.W.)  eighty  rods 
and  its  progressive  velocity  sixty  miles  per  hour,  it  would  follow  that 
one  mile  is  passed  in  sixty  seconds,  or  eighty  rods  in  fifteen  seconds. 
Assuming  the  average  width  of  the  destructive  path  of  the  tornado- 
cloud  to  be  forty  rods  and  your  position  at  the  center  of  that  path,  it 
will  be  seen  that  you  have  fifteen  seconds  in  which  to  reach  the  outer 
edge  of  the  path  to  the  north  (a  distance  of  twenty  rods)  before  the 
tornado-cloud  could  arrive  at  your  location. 

I  have  taken  an  extreme  case  in  every  particular.  Most  persons  first 
see  the  tornado-cloud  at  a  much  greater  distance,  from  one  to  three 
miles,  sometimes  five  and  ten  miles  -on  the  prairies.  Of  course,  at  the 
unusual  distance  of  five  or  ten  miles  you  could  not  determine  very  sat- 
isfactorily its  probable  course,  especially  with  regard  to  your  buildings 
or  the  safety  of  your  own  location.  Watching  the  approach  of  the 
tornado -cloud  closely  at  a  distance  of  ten  miles,  and  from  that  position 
on  and  on  in  its  eastward  course  until  it  came  within  a  mile  or  so  of  your 
point  of  observation,  would  give  you  sufficient  opportunity  to  predict  its 
probable  course  in  regard  to  your  location.  When  that  matter  is  set- 
tled satisfactorily  to  your  judgment,  move  immediately  and  without 
further  hesitation.  If  you  wait  until  the  tornado-cloud  is  distant  one 
mile,  you  have  at  least  sixty  seconds  in  which  to  run  a  distance  of  thirty 
rods,  supposing  that  you  are  obliged  to  cover  more  than  half  of  the  de- 
structive path  of  the  storm.  In  an  average  case  you  will  probably 
have  between  eighty  and  ninety  seconds  in  which  to  run  a  distance  of 
twenty  rods.  In  either  case  I  am  supposing  that  you  are  prepared  in 
every  particular  to  move  at  the  very  instant  of  timely  warning. 
Further,  I  am  supposing  that  you  have  been  watching  the  weather  of 
the  day  and  understand  that  a  terrible  storm  is  imminent  There  is, 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  no  reason  why  you  shoiild  not  be  so  in- 
formed. A  tornado- cloud  does  not  come  out  of  a  clear  sky,  and  there 
are  many  and  ample  signs  of  its  approach. 

What  has  been  said  in  regard  to  the  directions  in  which  persons 
should  move  when  the  progressive  motion  is  prevailing,  will  for  all 
practical  purposes  apply  to  motions  Nos.  I.  and  III.  With  respect  to 
motion  No.  IV.  (the  zigzag)  the  following  preliminary  remarks  should 
be  most  carefully  considered.   Remember  that  while  possessed  of  this 


46 


motion  the  tornado-cloud  crosses  from  one  side  of  the  central  line  of 
movement  or  major  axis  to  the  other.  That  this  peculiar  motion  most 
frequently  occurs  just  after  the  termination  of  the  rising  and  falling  mo- 
tion (No.  IIL),  so  that  when  you  see  the  tornado-cloud  descending  to  the 
earth  from  one  of  its  aerial  flights  you  may  expect  (not  absolutely)  the 
zigzag  motion  to  follow.  That  the  first  departure  of  the  tornado-cloud 
from  the  major  axis  is  to  the  left  or  on  the  north  side  of  the  path. 
That  all  departures  from  the  major  axis,  whether  forward  or  return 
movements  of  the  tornado-cloud,  are  mvariably  executed  to  the  east- 
ward. There  is  no  backward  movement  to  the  west.  That  the 
tornado-cloud  never  continues  to  move  in  the  direction  of  any  tangent 
to  the  major  axis,  but  in  the  event  of  any  departure  it  ultimately  re- 
turns to  the  central  line  of  movement.  Having  these  points  well  in 
mind,  you  are  quite  satisfactorily  prepared  to  act  when  the  exigency  oc- 
curs. When  the  departure  of  the  tornado-cloud  is  to  the  left  and  your 
position  is  at  any  point  in  the  central  line  of  movement  (better  near  the 
center  of  the  path),  move  directly  north  with  the  utmost  rapidity,  even 
if  the  cloud  is  at  a  long  distance  from  you.  Should  ic  chance  that  your 
distance  from  the  cloud  is  reduced  to  from  twenty  to  forty  rods,  run  in- 
stantly to  the  south,  bearing  slightly  west.  This  movement  will  take 
you  away  from  the  forward  and  return  action  of  the  tornado-cloud. 
Another  case,  suppose  your  position  to  be  the  same  as  just  given,  viz. : 
at  any  point  in  the  central  line  of  movement,  but  that  the  tornado- 
cloud  had  just  crossed  over  that  line  to  the  southward.  In  this  event 
you  should  move  instantly  and  directly  to  the  north,  bearing  slightly 
west.  This  movement  will  also,  as  in  the  case  previously  cited,  take 
you  away  from  the  forward  and  return  action  of  the  tornado-cloud. 

How  TO  Act  on  its  Formation. — The  following  remarks  apply  to 
your  manner  of  action  when  the  evidences  of  the  existence  of  the 
tornado-cloud  are  undeniable.  Suppose  the  actual  tornado  cloud  is 
not  yet  in  sight,  but  other  infallible  signs  (heretofore  given)  of  its  forma- 
tion and  probable  approach  from  a  point  possibly  below  your  horizon, 
are  present.  Act  immediately,  judiciously,  and  with  the  utmost  rapidity, 
but  never  for  one  instant  allow  yourself  to  become  excited  or  reckless 
in  anything.  Take  the  situation  as  calmly  as  possible,  knowing  as  you 
ought  (or  probably  will)  the  terrible  power  you  have  to  deal  with.  Do 
not,  with  an  overweening  sense  of  fancied  security  or  an  inclination  to 
a  superstitious  feeling  that  your  life  is  mysteriously  over-shadowed  by  a 
peculiarly  beneficent  power,  think  and  act  leisurely  about  the  matter  of 
self-protection.  A  tornado-cloud  never  sends  forward  a  flag  of  truce 
or  even  solicits  the  "right  of  way."  There  are  certam  indications 
which  we  have  heretofore  spoken  of  that  frequently,  if  not  always, 


47 


manifest  themselves  from  half  an  hour  to  two  or  three  hours  in  advance 
of  the  tornado-cloud. 

Many  foolhardy  acts  have  been  committed,  perhaps  through  fear  and 
excitement  or  positive  ignorance,  which  have  resulted  in  death  or  dread- 
ful injuries,  because  persons  have  tried  to  run  in  front  of  the  tornado- 
cloud,  thinking  they  could  outstrip  it  in  such  a  race.  Others  have  at-= 
tempted  to  cross  the  path  just  ahead  of  the  advancing  cloud,  feeling 
that  they  could  reach  a  safe  distance  on  the  opposite  side  before  the 
funnel-shaped  monster  passed.  In  one  of  our  late  storms  a  person  es= 
sayed  this  trip  with  two  horses  and  a  lumber  wagon,  confident  that  he 
could  at  least  rush  his  horses  across  the  apparently  narrow  path  of  a 
storm  which  seemed  to  progress  within  such  circumscribed  limits.  Not 
so.  He  was  instantly  killed,  one  of  his  horses  dreadfully  mangled,  the 
other  seriously  injured,  and  the  wagon  a  total  wreck.  The  work  of  an 
instant.    An  ignorant,  reckless  rush  into  eternity. 

Protection  of  Property, — What  can  be  done  to  in  any  way  lessen 
the  actual  damage  (present  or  prospective)  to  property,  especially 
buildings  ?  In  the  first  place  it  is  impossible  to  move  your  buildings 
from  the  path  of  the  advancing  tornado-cloud.  Secondly,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  stop  the  tornado-cloud  after  it  has  started  on  its  course  of  death 
and  destruction,  or  in  any  way  prevent  its  formation.  Thirdly,  it  is 
impossible  to  construct  any  building  strong  enough  to  completely  resist 
the  extraordinary  violence  of  the  tornado-cloud.  To  sum  up,  this  is 
all  equivalent  to  saying  that  you  can  never  expect  to  save  your  build- 
ings. This  is  the  truth  as  I  comprehend  it,  and  it  is  that  to  which  all 
thought  upon  the  subject  will  sooner  or  later  conform.  It  is  advisable 
that,  under  all  circumstances,  you  should  avoid  any  labor  especially 
directed  to  the  construction  of  any  building  whatsoever,  for  the  express 
purpose  of  resisting  the  violence  of  the  tornado-cloud.  Build  your 
houses,  bams,  and  stores  as  you  would  without  the  knowledge  of  a 
tornado.  Other  things  being  equal,  a  frame  building  is  better  than  a 
brick  oi  stone  one.  The  former  will  hold  together  longer,  is  more  elas- 
tic (if  you  will  permit  the  term),  and  persons  seeking  refuge  within  its 
walls  are  much  less  liable  to  injury.  There  has  at  times  been  evidence 
to  show  that,  of  all  frame  buildings,  those  constructed  with  a  hip-roof 
and  a  story  and  a  half  in  height  were  the  best  able  to  resist  the  vio- 
lence of  the  tornado.  But  where  there  are  cases  reported  of  this  class 
of  buildings^  being  saved  there  are  as  many,  if  not  more,  where  they 
were  destroyed  precisely  as  any  other  frame  building  would  have  been 
under  similar  circumstances. 

It  matters  not  how  you  construct  or  of  what  material,  if  your  building 
rises  above  the  surface  of  the  earth,  which  it  must  necessarily  do,  it 


48 


thereby  offers  obstruction  to  the  advance  of  the  tornado-cloud,  and  it 
will  go,  either  from  the  foundation,  or  into  kindling-wood  and  a  dis- 
tracted mass  of  bricks  and  mortar,  in  spite  of  the  propagation  of  any 
theory  on  the  possibilities  of  architectural  skiU.  In  conclusion  I  would 
finally  say,  that  you  must  take  every  precaution  to  avoid  or  remove 
from,  rather  than  attempt  to  fight  against  or  any  way  resist,  the  power 
of  this  formidable  adversary.  The  question  now  suggests  itself,  what 
can  be  done  ?  That  which  remains  to  be  done  can  be  accomplished  in 
an  unostentatious  and  quiet,  but  secure  manner.  Every  man  can  and 
should  construct  a  tornado-cave  at  some  suitable  point,  within  a  conve- 
nient distance  of  his  housCc  If  a  person  is  situated  within  a  town  or 
city,  let  him  select  some  portion  of  his  yard  for  the  purpose,  but  if  re= 
siding  in  the  country  he  will  not  be  confined  to  narrow  limits  in  the 
selection  of  a  desirable  location.  Where  a  person  living  in  the  village 
has  no  yard,  he  must,  if  he  has  a  cellar,  construct  a  cellar  tornado-cave 
to  be  described  further  on.  With  respect  to  the  tornado-cave,  in  no  event 
should  the  roof  be  other  than  level  with  the  surface  of  the  earth;  in 
fact  it  is  highly  desirable  that  the  retreat  should  be  so  constructed  that 
the  ordinary  surface  of  the  earth  would  form  the  roof  or  covering,  and 
that  all  preparation  of  the  domicile  proceed  by  way  of  excavations  and 
supports  from  beneath.  As  to  location,  the  most  important  points  are, 
excavation  of  cave  to  the  westward  of  house  or  other  building;  con- 
venient distance ;  a  high,  dry  place,  and  possible  opportunities  to  exca= 
vate  into  the  northern  or  eastern  slope  of  a  knoll  or  hill.  In  the  latter 
instance  the  entrance  way  would  suffer  less  from  the  violence  of  the 
storm,  providing,  perhaps,  that  it  did  not  entirely  envelop  your  re- 
treat,  for  in  that  even t,]  in  the  whirl  of  the  flying  debris,  all  sides 
alike  would  be  at  the  mercy  of  the  winds.  Having  decided  upon  the 
location,  as  regards  your  house  or  other  buildings,  sink  a  shaft,  say, 
four  to  six  feet  square,  the  entire  depth  of  yom*  tornado-cave.  From 
either  the  northern  or  eastern  (better  the  former)  wall  of  this  shaft, 
make  the  necessary  preparations  for  purposes  of  ingress  and  egress. 
On  the  west  side  of  the  shaft  commence  the  excavation  for  the  in- 
closed retreat.  The  size  of  the  room  will  of  course  depend  upon  how 
much  you  may  at  any  time  wish  to  secure  from  injury.  Better  have  the 
excavation  too  large  than  not  large  enough.  The  slight  difference  in 
the  expense  of  time  and  labor  may,  perhaps,  be  the  means  of  saving  you 
a  great  deal  when  you  least  expect  it.  The  entire  room  should  be  be» 
low  the  surface  of  the  ground  a  distance  of  at  least  three  feet,  and  the 
overhanging  roof  of  earth  should  be  supported  from  beneath  by  heavy 
timbers,  to  provide  against  any  emergency,  like  the  dashing  of  heavy 
debus  upon  it  or  the  tramping  of  horses  and  cattle. 


49 


In  the  event  of  a  tornado  your  retreat  (lornado-cave)  may  be  entirely 
buried  beneath  huge  piles  of  debris.  Everything  mubt  be  made  as  se- 
cure as  possible.  The  entrance  door  should  be  made,  either  of  sheet 
iron  or  of  the  heaviest  timbers  and  supported  between  casings  of  similar 
strength  of  construction.  Arrangements  should  be  made  to  secure  the 
door  by  heavy  fastenings.  In  order  that  ventilation  may  be  provided- 
for,  a  box  spout,  of  hard  wood  or  vitrified  tile,  squaring  about  eight 
inches,  can  be  let  through  the  roof.  The  top  of  this  spout  must  be 
level  with  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  protected  by  iron  gratings. 
Ventilation  may  be  provided  for  by  openings  through  the  upper  por- 
tion of  the  door,  but  these  also  should  be  protected  by  iron  gratings. 
The  question  of  how  to  provide  the  most  approved  form  of  tornado- 
cave,  with  every  detail  of  cost,  material,  and  method  of  construction,  is 
very  fully  considered  a  few  pages  further  along. 

If  you  are  not  possessed  of  the  tornado-cave  or  cellar  tornado-cave, 
your  best  plan  is  to  move  from  your  house  or  wherever  you  may  be  at 
the  moment,  as  directed  concerning  the  various  motions  of  the  tornado- 
cloud.  If  not  able  to  benefit  by  these  directions,  retreat  instantly  to  your 
cellar  and  place  yourself,  face  forward,  against  the  west  walL  This  is 
the  best  position  in  any  cellar.  If,  for  any  reason,-  you  cannot  get  to  the 
west  wall,  take  your  position  (the  next  best)  face  forward  against  the  south 
wall,  but  as  near  the  southwest  corner  as  possible.  In  these  positions 
the  building,  if  removed  from  the  foundation,  will  always  be  carried 
above  and  over  you,  or  if  torn  to  pieces,  the  debris  will  be  instantly  re- 
moved to  the  eastward.  Under  no  circumstances^  whether  in  a  building 
or  a  cellar^  ever  take  a  position  in  a  northeast  room,  in  a  northeast  cor- 
ner, in  an  east  room,  or  against  an  east  wall.  Remember  that  the  tor- 
nado-cloud invariably  moves  in  a  northeasterly  direction.  I  have  not 
space  here  in  which  to  relate  to  you,  how  many  and  in  what  manner, 
persons  have  been  instantly  killed  or  terribly  crippled,  for  no  other  rea- 
son than  that  they  ignorantly  threw  themselves  within  the  very  grasp 
of  the  monster  cloud.  The  lives  of  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  people  de- 
stroyed in  tornadoes  might  have  been  saved  by  a  clear  understanding 
and  a  strict  adherence  to  the  simple  rules  herein  set  forth. 

The  rule  prohibiting  movement  to  the  northeast  must  be  obeyed. 
The  northeast  quarter  is  a  fatal  position,  and  I  care  not  what  you  may 
tell  me  about  destruction  to  life  or  property  in  any  other.  If  you  can 
get  out  of  your  house  never  remain  in  it  or  any  other  building  that 
is  at  all  likely  to  be  torn  down  or  removed  from  its  foundation.  If 
through  some  misfortune  you  are  closely  pressed  by  the  advancing 
cloud,  never  remain  standing  and  attempt  to  weather  the  storm,  but 
throw  yourself  prone  (face  downward)  upon  the  ground,  head  to  the 


so 

east,  and  arms  thrown  over  the  head  to  protect  it.  If  you  should 
chance  to  be  near  a  large  stone  ur  stump,  or  some  heavy  object  low 
down  and  firmly  imbedded  in  the  ground,  take  a  position  directly  to 
the  east  of  it,  lying  prone  upon  the  earth,  head  toward  the  object, 
protecting  the  former  with  your  folded  arms.  This  advice  is  given  in 
the  event  of  extreme  exigencies  where  other  and  better  opportunities 
have  been  forfeited.  It  is  better,  if  possible,  never  to  trust  yourself  be- 
hind or  about  any  object  located  within  the  center  of  the  storm's  path  ; 
by  all  means  not  a  tree  or  any  object  that  rises  some  distance  above  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  If  forced  to  remam  in  your  house  and  where 
you  have  no  cellar,  always  take  a  position  against  the  west  or  south 
wall  (better  the  former)  either  prone  (face  downward)  upon  the  floor  or 
standing  with  your  back  to  the  wall. 

In  any  building  always  take  your  final  position  on  the  first  or  ground 
floor.  Never  stand  or  lie  in  front  of  a  door  or  window,  or  near  a  stove  or 
heavy  piece  of  furniture.  Make  every  effort  to  get  into  the  west  room, 
and  if  possible  before  the  onslaught  remove  therefrom  all  furniture,  at 
least  from  the  western  portion.  Always  shut  tightly  every  window  and 
door  in  your  house  or  other  building  in  which  you  may  be  located  at  the 
time  of  the  storm.  You  should  never  let  doors  and  windows  remain 
open  during  any  violent  storm.  Never  take  refuge  in  a  forest,  in  a 
small  grove  of  trees,  in  an  orchard,  or  near  a  fence  of  any  kind,  unless 
all  these  obstructions  are  entirely  out  of  the  line  of  the  storm. 

If  possible,  always  open  your  buildings  and  let  your  stock  out,  driv- 
ing them  to  the  north.  In  this  matter  of  caring  for  stock  (which  should 
not  be  neglected  if  otherwise  possible)  always  drive  them  from  your 
buildings  to  the  (as  a  rule)  northward.  Try  and  perform  this  duty  on 
the  first  indications  of  the  character  of  the  storm,  though  not  until  you 
have  assured  yourself  of  the  probable  course  of  the  tornado-cloud.  Of 
course  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  tornado- cloud  may  pass  to  the  north 
of  your  buildings;  in  that  event  your  stock  should  be  driven  southward, 
and  vice  versa* 


SI 


PRIZE  TORNADO-CAVE. 

Through  the  courtesy  of  the  Burlington  Insurance  Com- 
pany, of  Iowa,  we  are  the  first  to  publish  the  design  of  John 
R.  Church,  architect,  of  Rochester,  New  York,  which  was  the 
one  selected  by  the  author  (empowered  by  the  Burlington 
Company  to  adjudicate  the  claims  of  competitors  and  award 
the  prize)  from  122  designs  submitted  in  competition  for  the 
$200  prize  offered  by  that  company. 

These  plans  and  specifications,  and  all  that  pertains  to 
them,  are  protected  by  special  copyright,  and  are  the  property 
of  the  Burlington  Insurance  Company. 


DESIGN  FOR  A  TORNADO-CAVE,  BY  JOHN  R.  CHURCH, 
ARCHITECT,  ROCHESTER,  N.  Y. 

The  general  design  of  the  cave  is  indicated  by  the  accom- 
panying drawings. 

The  cave  is  designed  for  two  different  methods  of  entrance. 
In  design  A  "  the  entrance  is  from  the  cellar  of  dwelling.  In 
design  B  "  the  plan  is  intended  for  a  dwelling  without  cellar, 
the  entrance  to  cave  is  from  a  room  in  the  rear  part  of  dwell- 
ing and  through  trap-door  in  floor. 

The  drawings  indicate  walls  of  stone  18  inches  in  thickness;  it 
is  intended  that  they  should  be  laid  up  in  mortar  of  good  quality 
cement  and  clean,  sharp  sand.  The  excavation  should  be  made 
large  enough  to  allow  the  walls  to  be  pointed  and  plastered  on 
the  outside  with  cement  mortar,  to  prevent  water  from  coming 
through  them.  The  walls  should  be  started  on  a  bed  of  cement 
mortar  i  inch  thick. 

In  a  country  where  stone  is  more  expensive  than  brick,  an 
8-inch  brick  wall  can  be  substituted  for  the  stone  wall,  plas- 
tering the  wall  on  the  outside  with  cement  mortar  and  laying  the 
brick  in  same  kind  of  mortar. 

The  floor  of  the  cave  and  passages  to  be  paved  with  one  course 
of     hard-burned"  brick,  these  to  be  laid  on  a  bed  of  cement 


53 


mortar  2  inches  thick,  and  the  joints  to  be  thoroughly  grouted 
with  cement. 

The  construction  of  the  roof  to  be  with  iron  beams  and  8-inch 
arches  of  "  hard-burned"  brick  as  shown,  the  brick  to  be  laid 
in  cement  mortar,  top  to  be  leveled  up  and  sloped  as  indicated 
with  concrete,  and  the  whole  to  be  covered  with  a  coating  of 
best  roofing  pitch  ;  this  to  be  applied  hot  and  the  roof  made 
water-tight.    Roof  of  the  passage  to  be  constructed  in  same  way. 

Iron  beams  indicated  should  be  6  incheS;  40  lbs.  per  yard, 
with  4x6  inch  angle-irons  laid  on  the  walls  as  shown  -  to  pro- 
vide skewbacks  for  the  arches — angle  irons  to  weigh  30  lbs.  per 
yard.  The  bolts  to  be  i  inch  in  diameter,  and  to  be  fixed  as 
indicated.  Roof  of  the  exit ''to  be  covered  with  flag-stone 
6  inches  thick., 

For  ventilation  two  lines  of  12-inch,  salt-glazed, vitrified  tile  are 
provided,  these  to  connect  with  outer  air  as  indicated,  tile  to 
run  up  above  the  ground  about  6  inches  and  to  have  cast-iron 
grating  in  top. 

The  doors  to  be  made  of  2-inch  matched  plank,  hung  with 
strap  hinges,  battened,  and  provided  with  bolts,  latches,  etc. 

An  exit  to  open  air  is  provided  in  addition  to  the  entrance  to 
cave  from  dwelling ;  this  can  also  be  used  for  an  entrance  if 
desired 

SPECIFICATION 

Of  materials  and  labor  required  in  the  construction  of  a  *' tornado- 
cave  "  for  Mr.   to  be  located  on  the  west  side  of  his  dwelling, 

situated  ,  in  accordance  with  accompanying  drawings  prepared 

by  John  R.  Church,  architect,  54  Osburn  House  Block,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

DIMENSIONS. 

The  size  of  the  cave  to  be  seven  feet  by  twelve  feet  inside,  and  the 
height  to  be  six  feet  six  inches  in  the  clear,  passages,  etc.,  all  to  be  as 
shown  on  the  drawings,  which  consist  of — 

(i.)  Plan  of  the  cave  at  ground. 

(2. )  Plan  of  cave  below  ground. 

(3.)  Four  sections  of  cave  on  different  lines. 

(4. )  Perspective  sketch  of  entrance. 

(5.)  Perspective  sketch  of  interior.  Drawings  have  the  scale  indi- 
cated on  them. 


55 


EXCAVATION. 

Excavate  for  the  cave,  the  passage  from  cellar  or  house,  and  for  the 
exit-passage,  all  as  shown  on  the  drawings.  The  excavation  to  be 
made  large — at  least  eighteen  inches  outside  of  the  walls  on  all  sides — 
so  that  the  walls  can  be  plastered  on  the  outside. 

The  excavation  to  be  carried  down  to  seven  feet  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  as  indicated  on  the  sectional  drawings.  After  the  walls 
have  been  plastered  as  hereinafter  specified,  and  the  mortar  is  dry, 
pack  the  earth  in  against  the  walls,  and  after  the  roof  is  on  cover  the 
same  with  earth,  as  shown  by  the  drawings,  and  slope  it  from  the  top  of 
cave  as  indicated. 

STONE-WORK. 

The  walls  of  the  cave  to  be  of  stone,  eighteen  inches  thick;  these  to 
be  built  with  good,  flat,  building  stone,  the  walls  to  be  laid  by  and  full 
to  a  line  both  faces,  and  the  walls  to  be  properly  flushed  and  pointed; 
the  walls  must  be  filled  solid,  leaving  no  empty  spaces  in  them. 

The  stone  walls  are  to  start  four  inches  below  the  finished  line  of 
floor  of  cave,  lay  the  footings  of  same  on  a  bed  of  cement  mortar  not 
less  than  one  inch  thick,  the  same  extending  well  outside  of  the  walls. 

All  of  the  stone  work  to  be  laid  in  mortar  made  of  clean,  coarse, 
sharp  sand  and  a  good  quality  of  cement,  mixed  in  the  proportion  of 
three  of  sand  to  one  of  cement  ;  all  to  be  mixed  dry,  and  only  wetted 
up  as  fast  as  used. 

The  outer  face  of  the  walls  to  be  plastered  with  a  good  coat  of  ce- 
ment mortar,  the  same  to  be  carried  down  to  the  mortar  under  the 
wall,  the  mortar  made  in  same  manner  as  specified  above  for  the  stone- 
work. 

If  brick  is  used  for  the  walls  instead  of  stone,  substitute  the  follow- 
ing for  the  above  :  — 

BRICK  WALLS. 

All  brick  used  in  the  construction  of  the  cave  must  be  *'  thoroughly 
hard-burned  brick,"  no  soft  brick  to  be  used  in  any  part. 

Start  the  brick  walls  on  a  bed  of  cement  mortar  at  least  one  inch 
thick,  and  four  inches  below  the  finished  floor  of  cave ;  this  mortar  to  be 
made  of  clean,  coarse,  sharp  sand  and  a  good  quality  of  cement,  in 
parts  of  three  of  sand  to  one  of  cement. 

Construct  the  brick  walls  in  the  best  manner,  all  to  be  eight  inches 
thick,  built  of  hard -burned  brick  laid  in  cement  mortar;  the  walls  to  be 
properly  bonded  with  headers  every  sixth  course,  every  course  to  be 
flushed  solid,  leaving  no  empty  spaces  in  the  walls — the  inside  of  the 
walls  to  have  the  jomts  neatly  struck,  and  the  outer  faces  of  the  walls 


57 


must  all  be  plastered  with  a  go©d  coat  of  cement  mortar,  the  same  to 
be  carried  down  to  bottom  of  the  walls.  All  brick  must  be  well  wet 
before  laying. 

IRON-WORK. 

Provide  iron-work  for  the  support  of  the  roof,  as  shown  by  the  draw- 
ing of  same. 

Support  the  roof  of  cave  with  two  six-inch  I  beams  weighing  40  lbs. 
per  yard,  to  form  skewbacks  for  the  arches  ;  place  3x5  angle-irons  on 
the  walls,  and  connect  the  whole  with  three  lines  of  iron  bolts  one  inch 
in  diameter,  the  bolts  to  have  nuts,  etc. 

Support  the  roof  of  the  passage  as  shown,  using  3x5  angle -irons  on 
walls  to  form  skewbacks  for  the  arches,  place  one-inch  iron  bolts  as  in- 
dicated, the  angle-iron  to  weigh  30  lbs.  per  yard. 

ARCHES. 

Construct  the  arches  forming  the  roof  of  the  cave  as  shown  by  the 
sectional  drawings,  using  only  hard,  well-burned  brick,  no  soft  brick  to 
be  used;  the  arches  to  be  two  '*  row-locks,"  as  indicated,  and  to  be 
built  on  proper  centering.  The  brick  must  all  be  soaked  in  water  be- 
fore using,  to  be  laid  with  cement  mortar,  and  the  joints  to  be  made 
close,  and  filled  solid,  leaving  no  empty  spaces  in  them.  All  joints  to 
be  well  slushed  up  with  cement  mortar. 

Fill  in  on  top  of  the  roof  of  cave  and  passage,  as  shown  on  the  sec- 
tional drawings,  with  concrete  made  of  clean,  coarse,  sharp  sand, 
broken  stone-chips,  or  coarse  gravel,  and  a  good  quality  of  cement;  the 
top  of  the  cave  and  passage  to  be  of  convex  form  as  indicated,  so  that 
it  will  shed  water.    Top  to  be  made  flush  and  smooth. 

PITCH. 

The  whole  top  of  cave  and  passage  to  be  covered  with  a  good  heavy 
coat  of  good  roofing  pitch,  this  to  be  applied  hot  and  the  roof  to  be 
made  water-tight  thereby. 

FLAG-STONE  OVER  EXIT. 

Provide  and  place  over  the  exit-passage,  as  indicated  on  the  draw- 
ings, a  flag-stone  not  less  than  five  inches  thick ;  set  same  in  cement 
mortar,  and  pitch  the  joints  to  make  water-tight. 

Provide  a  stone  sill  to  the  outer  exit-opening ;  this  to  be  four  inches 
thick. 

FLOOR  OF  CAVE. 

Spread  a  bed  of  cement  mortar  two  inches  thick  on  the  ground  in 
the  cave  and  the  passages;  this  to  be  leveled  off  true  and  smooth,  and 
covered  with  one  course  of  hard-burned  brick  laid  flat,  the  joints  of 
which  are  to  be  thoroughly  grouted  in  cement. 


59 


VENTILATION. 

For  ventilation  of  the  cave  provide  two  lines  of  twelve-inch,  salt- 
glazed,  vitrified  tile;  provide  1-4  bends  as  shown,  and  carry  tile  up  to 
six  inches  above  the  finished  grade,  as  shown  by  drawings;  the 
joints  must  all  be  made  tight  with  cement,  and  the  outer  openings  of  the 
tile  to  have  iron  gratings  as  shown. 

DOORS. 

Construct  two  doors  as  indicated  on  the  plans,  these  doors  to  be  of 
two-inch  planed  and  matched  pine  stuff;  the  same  to  be  battened  on  the 
back,  the  same  put  on  with  screws,  and  to  be  hung  to  the  frames  with 
large,  heavy  T  hinges. 

The  door-frames  to  have  sills  of  oak,  the  jambs  to  be  of  pine  two 
inches  thick,  the  same  rebated  for  the  doors;  the  jamb  to  which  the 
door  is  hung  to  be  four  inches  wider  than  the  others;  this  to  project 
into  the  cave,  so  as  to  secure  the  hinges  to  it.  Provide  the  doors  with 
heavy  thumb-latches,  iron  bolts,  staples,  and  a  padlock  to  each  door. 

The  head-jamb  of  the  door-frames  and  the  sills  of  same  to  project 
three  inches  into  the  walls  at  sides. 

Provide  lintels  of  segment  form,  as  indicated  on  the  drawings,  over 
door-openings  on  which  arches  of  brick  are  to  be  turned  as  shown. 

SEAT  AND  STEPS. 

Construct  seat  and  steps  as  shown  on  the  plans;  all  of  sound  dry 
pine,  two  inches  thick,  to  be  planed  and  constructed  and  put  up  in  a 
good,  substantial  manner. 

OPENING  IN  CELLAR  WALL. 

Cut  opening  through  the  cellar  wall  of  the  dwelling  as  indicated,  for 
the  passage  to  cave,  properly  fill  out  the  jambs  of  the  opening  and  fin- 
ish plumb  and  true. 

FOR  A  HOUSE  WITHOUT  A  CELLAR,  INCLUDE  THE  FOLLOWING  :— 

The  wall  of  the  passage  to  be  carried  under  the  house  as  shown  on 
the  plan. 

Cut  out  the  floor-timbers,  floor,  etc.,  in  the  house,  and  frame  trim- 
mers, headers,  etc.,  as  required  for  the  proper  support  of  the  floor. 

Construct  trap-door  as  indicated,  with  flooring  same  as  in  the  room, 
the  door  to  be  battened  on  the  back,  the  battens  to  be  put  on  with 
wrought  nails,  the  door  to  be  hung  with  heavy  8-inch  T  hmges  and 
trimmed  with  ring  and  staple  to  open. 

Construct  a  flight  of  stairs  leading  to  passage,  as  indicated  on  the 
plan ;  the  stringers  to  be  of  two-inch  pine  plank  and  the  treads  of  1  i  -4 


6o 


inch  pine  stuff,  the  edges  chamfered  3-8  inches,  the  treads  to  be  housed 
into  the  stringers,  and  the  whole  well  nailed  and  put  together  in  a  sub- 
stantial manner. 


For  the  construction  of  the  walls  of  wood  in  the  place  of  brick  or 
stone. 


Construct  all  the  walls  of  cave  and  passages  with  2x4  inch  pine 
stuff,  laid  the  flat  way,  all  well  spiked  together,  the  joints  to  be  prop- 
erly broken  at  the  angles  and  corners;  the  stuff  to  be  placed  horizon- 
tally and  to  make  walls  four  inches  thick  without  exterior  covering. 
This  stuff  should  all  have  a  good  coat  of  coal-tar,  applied  hot,  and  same 
to  cover  all  four  sides  of  the  stuff';  this  to  preserve  the  wood. 

Cover  the  outside  of  the  above  walls  with  7-8  planed  and  matched 
pine  stuff,  this  also  to  be  coated  on  both  sides  with  coal-tar;  these 
boards  to  be  placed  vertically,  and  all  well  nailed. 


Construct  the  roof  with  2x8  stuff,  placed  on  edge  and  close  together, 
forming  a  solid  roof  eight  inches  thick  in  the  center;  the  ends  of  same  to 
be  cut  down  to  six  inches,  so  as  to  form  a  pitch  for  the  roof,  which  will 
slope  from  the  center  to  either  side.  Cover  the  top  of  roof  with  7-8 
matched  pine  stuff,  all  well  nailed;  the  above  roofing  to  be  covered  with 
coal-tar,  same  as  specified  for  the  side  walls.  Cover  the  roof-boards 
with  a  good  coat  of  roofing  pitch.  Construct  the  roof  of  the  passages 
in  the  same  manner,  using  2x6  stuff  and  cutting  down  to  4  at  ends. 
The  floor,  arrangement  for  ventilation,  doors,  etc.,  to  be  the  same  as 
specified  for  cave  built  with  stone  or  brick. 


Of  cost  of  tornado-cave,  in  accordance  with  design  for  same  pre- 
sented by  John  R.  Church,  architect,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Note. — Estimates  are  based  upon  following  prices  for  materials  and 
labor : — 


SPECIFICATION 


WALLS. 


ROOF. 


ESTIMATES 


Excavation  

Building  stone  

Brick  

Sand  

Cement  

Iron  

Pine  lumber  (rough) 

Tile  

Pitching  roof  

Labor,  mason  

Labor,  laborer  


.30  per  cubic  yd. 


6.00  per  cord. 


8.00  per  thousand. 
1.50  per  cubic  yd. 


18.00  per  thous.  ft. 


1.25  perbbL 
.03  Vi  per  lb. 


.40  per  ft.  lin. 

.05  per  sq.  ft. 
3.00  per  day. 
1.50  per  day. 


6i 


Estimate  for  cave  connected  with  house  having  cellar.  Walls  of  cave 
of  stone.    Includes  labor. 


100  cubic  yds.  excavation  $  30.00 

Stone-work,  50  perches  (of  16  ^  cubic  ft.)   112.50 

Concrete  and  plastering   30.00 

Flooring,  600  brick   8.40 

Roof,  2,700  brick   37.80 

Flag-stone  over  exit   12.00 

Stone  sill  at  exit   2.00 

Pitching  roof,  300  feet   15.00 

Iron- work,  750  lbs   24.38 

Tile  for  vent.  .\.   10.00 

Laying  same   3.00 

Gratings  for  vent  opening  (2)   2.00 

Doors,  seats,  etc   12.00 


S299.08 

Where  the  cave  is  to  be  used  independent  of  any  building,  and 
passage  to  house  is  omitted,  deduct  from  the  above  figures  the  sum 
of  $62.30,  making  the  estimated  cost  of  cave  under  those  conditions 
I236.78. 

Estimate  of  the  cost  of  cave  with  brick  walls  connected  to  house 
having  cellar.    Labor  included. 


85  cubic  yds.  excavation  $  25.50 

8,100  brick  in  walls   113.40 

600  brick  for  floor   8.40 

2,700  brick  for  roof   37.80 

Flag-stone  over  exit   12.00 

Stone  sill  at  exit   2.00 

Pitching  roof,  300  feet  :   15.00 

Iron- work,  750  lbs   24.38 

Concrete  and  plastering   30.00 

Tile  for  vent    10.00 

Laying  tile  and  trenching   3.00 

Gratings  for  vent   2.00 

Doors,  seats,  etc   12.00 


$295.48 

Where  the  cave  is  to  be  used  independent  from  any  building,  and 
the  passage  to  cellar  is  omitted,  deduct  from  the  above  figures  the  sum 
of  $60.88,  making  the  estimated  cost  of  cave  under  those  conditions 
$234.60. 

Estimate  of  cost  of  cave  v/ith  brick  walls,  connected  with  house 
having  no  cellar.    Labor  included. 


110  cubic  yds.  excava^tion  $  33.00 

10,200  brick  in  walls   142.20 

600  brick  for  floor   8.40 

2,700  brick  for  roofing   37.80 

Concrete,  plastering,  etc     32.00 

Flag-stone  over  exit   12.00 

Stone  sill  at  exit     2.00 

Pitching  top  of  roof,  300  feet   15.00 

750  lbs.  iron  in  roof  -   24.38 

Tile  for  vent,  23  feet,  3  bends   10.00 

Laying  tile  and  trenching   3.00 

Gratings  for  top  of  tile   2.00. . 

Doors,  seats,  etc..   12.00"^ 

Stairs,  trap-door  in  house,  etc  ,   10.00 


1344.38 


62 


Estimate  of  cost  of  cave  having  stone  walls,,  connected  with  house 

having  no  cellar.    Includes  labor. 

126  cubic  yds.  excavation  $  37.80 

Stone-work,  62  perches  (of  16^  cubic  feet).   139.50 

600  brick  in  floor   8.40 

2,700  brick  in  roof   37.80 

Concrete  and  plastering   32.00 

Flag-stone  over  exit   12.00 

Stone  sill  at  exit   2.00 

Pitching  roof   15.00 

Iron-work,  750  lbs   24.38 

Tile  for  vent   10.00 

Laying  and  trenching  same   3.00 

Gratings  for  vent   2.00 

Doors,  seats,  etc   12.00 

Stairs,  trap-door,  etc   10.00 

$345.38 


Section  of  Cave.  Woodconstruction. 

Estimate  of  cost  of  cave,  walls  constructed  of  wood,  and  connected 

with  house  having  cellar. 

Excavation,  85  cubic  yds   $25.50 

3,000  feet  rough  pine   54.00 

1,000  feet  matched  stuff   20.00 

Labor  on  above   35.00 

Tarring  roof  and  lumber   20.00 

Floor,  brick  and  cement   12.00 

Tile  for  vent,  laying  same  and  giating   15.00 

Doors,  seat,  etc   12.00 

$193.50 

Where  the  cave  is  to  be  used  independent  from  any  building,  and  the 
passage  to  house  is  omitted,  deduct  from  above  figures  $39.00,  making 
tine  estimated  cost  under  those  conditions  $154.50. 

For  walls  constructed  of  wood  as  above,  connected  with  house 
having  no  cellar,  add  to  above  figures  the  sum  of  $25.50. 


63 


Remarks  upon  the  Construction  and  Use  of  Tornado-caves, 
BY  Lieut.  Finley. 

The  importance  of  securing  absolute  protection  against  bodily  injury 
from  the  violence  of  tornadoes  cannot  be  questioned,  and  there  are  few 
people  who  now  speak  lightly  of  the  necessity  of  resorting  to  extraor- 
dinary means  in  the  presence  of  the  king  of  storms.  The  word  extra- 
ordinary "  is  used  advisedly,  because  ordinarily  man  obtains  immunity 
against  the  fury  of  the  elements  by  refuge  in  the  usual  forms  of  habita- 
tion; but  the  dreadful  force  of  the  tornado  compels  us  to  ignore  all 
places  of  security  ^here  the  structure  rises  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground. 

Let  us  take  an  example,  illustrating  the  force  of  the  wind.  Assume 
the  progressive  velocity  of  the  storm  to  be  twenty-five  miles  per 
hour.  Suppose  a  house  24  x  30  feet  on  its  foundation  exposes  a  plane 
surface  to  the  wind  of  720  square  feet.  Twenty-five  miles  per  hour  is 
equivalent  to  about  two  pounds  pressure  upon  each  square  foot  of  sur- 
face, presented  at  right  angles  or  perpendicular  to  the  direction  of  the 
wind.  On  720  square  feet  of  surface  the  pressure  exerted  at  right  angles 
to  it  would  be  1,440  pounds.  This  is  not  enough  force  to  move  the 
building,  because  it  is  much  less  than  the  actual  weight  of  the  structure, 
and  therefore  insufficient  to  overcome  its  point  of  stability.  But  twenty- 
five  miles  per  hour  is  simply  a  brisk  wind. 

Air  moving  with  a  velocity  of  100  miles  per  hour  against  the  building 
here  referred  to  would  exert  a  pressure  of  21,600  pounds  upon  its  ex- 
posed surface  of  720  square  feet.  With  a  velocity  of  500  miles  per  hour 
the  pressure  would  be  increased  to  486.000  pounds,  or  243  tons.  This 
enormous  pressure  is  but  about  one-half  of  that  which  would  result  in 
the  case  of  a  perfect  vacuum  in  the  tornado's  vortex.  In  a  perfect 
vacuum,  the  air  rushing  into  it  would  move  at  the  rate  of  about  1,400 
feet  per  second,  which  would  be  nearly  equivalent  to  a  velocity  of  1,000 
miles  per  hour.  The  pressure  upon  each  square  foot  of  surface  exposed 
to  such  a  velocity  would  be  about  2,700  pounds  per  square  foot,  or  if 
thrown  upon  the  entire  building,  that  is,  720  square  feet  of  surface,  i,- 
944,000  pounds,  or  972  tons. 

The  force  here  assumed  is  force  acting  only  in  right  lines.  But  when 
it  is  understood  that  in  the  actual  tornado  the  forces  in  play  are  ex- 
erted both  in  right  lines  and  in  curved  lines,  the  destructive  power  is 
seen  to  be  of  almost  incalculable  fury  and  energy.  In  the  majority  of 
instances  the  determinations  as  to  the  force  of*  the  wind  in  a  tornado 
have  ranged  between  100  and  500  miles  per  hour.  Theoretical  veloci- 
ties of  over  2,000  miles  per  hour,  based  upon  certain  assumed  atmos- 


65 


pheric  conditions,  have  been  deduced.  Such  velocities  are  mathemati- 
cally possible,  but  not  meteorologically  'probable.  What  has  now- 
transpired  shows  the  absolute  and  undeniable  necessity  for  an  under- 
ground retreat  to  secure  protection  from  the  tornado. 

Hints. 

1st.  Locate  the  cave  west  of  the  house,  so  that  if  the  building  is  de- 
stroyed the  debris  will  not  be  as  likely  to  be  thrown  upon  it,  the  storm 
always  coming  from  the  southwest  quadrant. 

2d.  The  entrance  and  exit  to  the  cave  should  be  east  of  the  cave 
proper  and  connected  with  it  by  a  tunnel  or  chamber,  and  securely  pro- 
tected from  mjury. 

3d.  It  is  preferable  that  the  entrances  should  connect  with  the  cellar 
of  the  house,  or  if  there  is  no  cellar,  then  by  means  of  a  trap-door 
within  the  house  leading  by  a  stairway  to  the  underground  chamber, 
which  finally  connects  with  the  cave  proper. 

4th.  The  entrance  way  should  have  two  doors,  one  at  the  beginning 
of  the  chamber  or  tunnel,  and  the  other  at  the  end  opening  into  the 
cave,  as  precaution  agamst  the  intrusion  of  fire  and  smoke,  where  the 
debris  of  the  house  might  be  destroyed  by  fire. 

5th.  The  entrance  and  exit  should  be  independent  of  each  other,  and 
the  latter  lead  out  to  the  open  air  by  a  short  chamber  with  two  doors, 
one  exterior  and  the  other  interior,  the  latter  opening  into  the  cave 
proper. 

6th.  The  roof  of  the  cave  should  always  be  arched,  because  offering 
more  resistance  to  the  force  of  the  wind  and  falling  debris  than  a  plane 
surface.  The  upper  surface  of  the  roof  should  be  at  least  three  (3)  feet 
below  the  earth  resting  upon  it.  This  precaution  gives  additional  pro- 
tection against  driving  timbers  thrown  by  the  force  of  the  wind. 

7th.  The  excavation  for  masonry  work  should  be  of  sufficient  depth 
to  permit  the  upper  surface  of  the  roof  of  the  cave  to  rest  about  one  foot 
below  the  surface  of  the  (surrounding)  undisturbed  earth.  This  arrange- 
ment, hy  allowing  three  feet  of  earth  to  cover  the  roof,  will  raise  a 
mound  of  about  two  feet,  which,  while  serving  as  a  protection  to  the 
masonry,  will  also  serve  to  turn  the  surface-water  away  from  the  roof 
of  the  cave. 

8th.  The  earth  covering  the  roof  should  be  well  pounded.  It  may 
be  mixed  with  broken  stone.  The  surface  should  be  sodded  or  sown 
with  blue  grass.  Every  precaution  must  be  takeu  to  render  the  earth 
above  the  roof  of  cave  proof  against  flying  missiles  and  timbers,  which 
are  frequently  driven  several  feet  into  the  solid  earth. 


66 


Qth.  Stone  or  brick,  with  Akron  or  Portland  building  cement,  is  the 
best  material  for  purposes  or  construction. 

loth.  It  is  folly  and  false  economy  to  build  a  cave  without  taking 
every  precaution  to  prevent  decay  of  materials  used. 

nth.  Drainage.  Particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  constructing 
the  cave  in  such  a  manner  that  it  v^^ill  keep  dry.  If  possible,  a  dry 
cave  should  be  constructed  by  laymg  all  masonry  in  cement  mortar 
and  carefully  pointing  the  exterior  of  all  w^alls,  and  then  plastering  on 
the  outer  faces  with  cement  mortar. 

The  roof  should  take  the  convex  form  suggested,  and  should  be  cov- 
ered with  a  good  coat  of  coal-tar  or  roofing  pitch. 

The  cave  should  never  be  connected  with  the  house-drain,  cess- 
pool, or  sewer,  receiving  waste  from  the  house,  on  account  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  so  disconnecting  same  as  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  sewer-gas 
into  cave — as  during  the  dry  season  the  water-seal  of  the  trap  would  be 
likely  to  be  broken  from  evaporation  and  other  causes. 

The  cave  should  not  be  connected  with  a  cesspool  receiving  waste 
from  the  house,  on  account  of  the  possibility  of  same  overflowing  into  the 
cave. 

1 2th.  Where  practicable,  the  entrance  and  exit  doors  which  open  into 
the  cave  proper  should  be  of  iron,  or  oak  covered  with  sheet  iron. 

13th.  Careful  attention  should  be  given  to  secure  complete  and  un- 
disturbed ventilation  of  the  entire  cave. 

14th.  During  the  season  when  tornadoes  are  most  likely  to  occur,  the 
cave  should  be  provided  with  all  things  necessary  to  place  it  in  readi- 
ness for  occupation  at  any  moment  of  night  or  day.  Every  precaution 
should  be  taken  to  keep  the  entrance  and  exit  ways  free  from  all  obsta- 
cles that  might  prevent  or  delay  the  immediate  use  of  the  cave.  The 
cave  should  always  be  provided  with  the  means  of  lighting  it,  say, 
safety-lamps  or  lanterns. 

15  th.  Every  one  constructing  a  tornado-cave  should  bear  in  mind  the 
necessity  which  may  occur  of  their  being  compelled  to  use  it  as  a  home 
for  a  considerable  time  while  repairing  or  building  anew  from  the  ruins 
of  the  storm.  Therefore,  where  it  is  possible,  it  is  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance to  erect  the  tornado-cave  with  care,  thoroughness,  and  a  due 
regard  to  comfort.  The  poor  man,  if  he  must  build  slowly  for 
lack  of  funds,  should  build  exceedingly  well,  while  the  rich  can  con- 
struct rapidly,  thoroughly,  and  with  every  regard  for  comfort  and  adorn- 
ment. But  in  either  case  the  absolute  protection  from  injury  and  loss 
should  be  the  same,  because  the  poor  man  cannot  afford  to  waste  money 
and  time,  and  subject  himself  and  family  to  great  danger,  by  reason  of  a 
hasty  and  improperly  constructed  cave. 


67 


1 6th.  During  that  season  of  the  year  when  tornadoes  are  not  likely  to 
occur,  the  tornado-cave  may  be  turned  to  practical  account  for  the 
storage  and  safe  keeping  of  many  thmgs  necessary  for  household  use. 

17th.  The  cave  proper  may  be  constructed  in  circular  form,  with  con- 
vex roof,  as  perhaps  being  more  durable  and  economical  of  space  than 
the  angular  form  with  convex  roof,  but  whatever  the  particular  fancy  of 
the  builder  may  dictate,  let  the  work  be  done  thoroughly  and  with  the 
best  materials. 


With  regard  to  the  protection  of  life  and  property  in  the  many  small 
towns,  and  even  cities,  liable  to  be  visited  by  the  devastating  tornado- 
cloud,  what  has  already  been  suggested  in  the  manner  of  north  and 
south  movements,  dug-outs,  and  cellar-caves  will,  of  course,  apply  here. 
Where,  as  in  a  village  or  city,  a  large  number  of  persons  are  congregated, 
each  intent  upon  his  or  her  particular  business,  it  is  hardly  to  be  ex- 
pected that  they  will  have  the  leisure  to  observe,  or  be  inclined  to  give 
any  attention  to  the  face  of  the  sky.  Should  it  chance  that  any  per- 
son watched  the  atmospheric  changes  and  received  indications  of  the 
approach  of  a  tornado-cloud,  he  might  not  think  it  his  duty  (probably 
forget  it  in  his  excitement)  to  warn  others  of  the  impending  danger,  or 
provide  for  the  safety  of  more  than  his  own  family.  Of  course,  in  any 
event  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  he  would  first  secure  his  own  household. 
This  supposed  case  is  a  very  probable  one;  at  least  nine  times  out  of  ten 
we  find  that  towns  are  devastated  without  apparent  warning,  and  the  un- 
fortunate people,  startled  from  their  imagined  security,  are  killed  in 
their  struggling  efforts  for  escape.  Some  provision  should  be  made  for 
the  mass  of  inhabitants  who  are  performing  their  various  duties  in  and 
out  of  doors,  and  who  by  reason  of  their  peculiar  situation  or  labor 
could  not,  if  they  would,  ascertain  the  prognostics  of  the  sky. 

With  regard  to  this  matter  we  will  offer  a  few  suggestions  which  may 
not  be  amiss.  On  any  day  when  there  is  presaged  in  the  weather  condi- 
tions evidence  of  the  probable  approach  of  a  violent  wind -storm,  it 
should  be  the  duty  of  those  in  authority  to  deputize  certain  intelligent 
persons  to  watch  the  character  and  approach  of  the  storm  and,  if  a  tor- 
nado, to  give  timely  warning  of  its  advance  to  the  various  families  in 
their  respective  wards,  and  take  charge  of  the  removal  of  persons  and 
property  to  places  of  safety.  The  church  and  school  bells  might  be 
rung  in  a  peculiar  manner  as  a  signal  of  warning.  These  men  should 
be  cool,  brave,  active,  and  judicious.  They  should  understand  the  situ- 
ation, know  precisely  what  is  needed  and  how  to  supply  it.  All  per- 
sons should  at  the  proper  time  appreciate  the  situation  of  those  in 
authority  and  avoid  confusion  by  a  strict  compliance  with  orders. 


68 


The  signs  (as  before  described)  ot  tornado-cloud  formation  and  ap- 
proach are  distinct  and  sufficiently  suggestive  to  afford  opportunity  for 
timely  and  concerted  action.  The  time  for  action  will  necessarily  be 
limited,  and  the  watch  need  not  commence  until  there  is  every  reason  to 
believe  that  such  a  course  is  absolutely  necessary.  Some  persons  may 
be  disposed  to  smile  at  the  novelty  and  minuteness  of  this  arrangement, 
or  at  the  idea  of  employing  weather-guards  at  Western  towns.  I  will 
venture  to  say  that  these  smiles  will  not  appear  on  the  faces  of  persons 
who  have  experienced  the  irresistible  and  overwhelming  violence  of  a 
tornado.  I  have  never  detected  levity  or  indifference  among  those  who 
were  left  to  tell  the  tale  of  distress  in  any  of  the  many  almost  annihilated 
towns  of  the  West.  You  may  smile  or  wonder  at  the  thought  of  hardy, 
brave  men  who  have,  without  flinching  and  in  support  of  their  country's 
honor,  faced  the  red-hot  belchings  of  a  score  of  batteries,  who  now  at 
the  sight  of  a  threatening  cloud  or  the  experience  of  a  brisk  wind,  make 
a  bold  dash  for  places  of  safety,  or,  throwing  themselves  upon  the 
ground,  clutch  at  the  first  object  within  reach.  Such  is  the  abject  terror 
which  possesses  all  alike  after  the  experience  of  a  tornado. 

Immediately  following  and  for  some  weeks  after  the  occurrence  in 
Kansas  and  Missouri  of  the  violent  tornadoes  of  1879,  hundreds  of  people 
along  the  tracks  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  storms  hardly  went  to  bed, 
but  remained  dressed  and,  with  their  lanterns  trimmed  and  burning, 
watched  intently  every  foreboding  appearance  of  the  sky.  Every  dark 
cloud  or  sudden  increase  of  the  wind  was  calculated  to  affect  them  with 
an  indescribable  terror  which  could  not  be  allayed  until  every  vestige  of 
the  supposed  danger  had  vanished.  This  is  not  the  pitiful  tale  alone  of 
Kansas  and  Missouri  sufferers,  but  wherever  the  dreaded  tornado  makes 
it  way,  be  it  in  Michigan,  in  Mississippi,  in  Georgia,  in  Massachusetts,  or 
in  Minnesota,  the  awful  roar  and  power  of  its  march  strike  all  life  dumb 
with  fear.  A  great  deal  can  be  accomplished  towards  allaying  this  fear 
by  a  dissemination  of  practical  knowledge  concerning  storms  and  by  a 
general  effort  among  intelligent  people  to  appreciate  such  information. 
All  intelligent  persons  can  and  should  become  familiar  with  the  various 
classes  of  storms  and  be  qualified  to  detect  their  formation  and  approach. 

There  is  no  country  on  the  face  of  the  globe  where  meteorology  can 
be  studied  with  so  much  advantage,  practically  and  scientifically,  as  in 
North  America.  The  elementary  principles  of  meteorology,  especially 
in  regard  to  storms,  should  be  taught  in  every  school,  country,  town, 
and  city.  In  the  colleges  and  universities  an  advanced  course  should 
be  prescribed.  Speculation  regarding  the  weather  is  exceedingly  rife, 
affecting  every  branch  of  the  science  and  in  a  manner  quite  without 
precedent  in  the  line  of  methodical  knowledge. 


69 


Tornado  prediction  is  no  longer  a  mere  possibility,  but  in  many  re- 
spects may  be  considered  an  accomplished  fact.  By  this  I  do  not  mean 
absolute  perfection,  but  reasonable  success.  The  system  of  preparation 
and  study  which  leads  to  the  result  is  subject  to  improvement,  both  as 
to  manipulation  of  charted  data  and  the  verification  of  forecasts;  but  it 
is  believed  that  the  work  now  in  hand  with  the  above  end  in  view,  will 
greatly  enhance  the  present  measure  of  success.  Tornado  predictions 
have  been  made  daily,  largely  as  a  matter  of  study,  but  in  part  for  the 
information  of  the  public,  through  Signal  Service  official  bulletins,  since 
March  1st,  1884. 

That  all  people  may  know  and  become  impressed  with  the  excep- 
tional power  and  awful  grandeur  of  the  tornado,  illustrations  of  its  work 
in  particular  instances  will  be  opportune  at  this  time. 


REPORT  ON  THE  TORNADOES  OF  MAY  29TH  AND  3OTH,  1 879,  AT 
SALINE    COUNTY,    KANSAS.       PROFESSIONAL    PAPER  OF 
THE  SIGNAL  SERVICE  NO.  IV.,  BY  LIEUT.  FINLEY. 

On  the  30th  of  May,  1879,  about  3  p.  m.,  a  tornado 
passed  over  a  portion  of  Saline  County,  Kansas,  concerning 
which  the  following  graphic  description  was  prepared  by  an 
eye-witness  : — 

''It  rains  so  gently  this  afternoon  that  the  weather  is  really 
enjoyable.  Plants  grow  and  flowers  bloom  as  they  never  do 
when  it  is  dry.  The  Solomon  Valley  seems  almost  a  second 
Garden  of  Eden.  A  short  time  before  the  clock  strikes 
three,  hailstones  begin  to  fall,  which  rapidly  increase  in 
size.  We  gather  some  of  the  largest  and  find  that  it  takes  six 
of  them  to  weigh  a  pound.  But  notice  that  hail-cloud  south 
of  us !  What  wonderful  contortions,  evolutions,  and  twistings. 

Note. — Pictures  of  the  identical  storms  described  are  not  obtainable, 
and,  per  contra,  descriptions  of  the  storms  photographed  are  not  at 
hand;  but  as  one  tornado  is  essentially  the  counterpart  of  another,  we 
have  adopted  such  pictures  as  we  could  get  to  illustrate  the  destructive 
force  of  these  terrible  meteors.  There  is  no  pretense  that  the  pictures 
represent  the  events  narrated  other  than  in  their  characteristics.  With 
this  explanation  no  one  need  be  misled  by  the  juxtaposition  of  text  and 
plate,  which  are  in  reality  foreign  to  each  other. 


70 


The  hail  that  is  falling  from  it  is  plainly  visible  from  here, 
although  it  is  four  miles  to  the  southwest.  A  few  strips 
of  cloud  like  whip-lashes  hang  from  it. 


Tornado  at  Griiuiell,  Iowa,  June  17,  1882.   View  near  tho  residence  of  Mr. 
Graham,  looking  northeast.  From  a  Photograph. 


71 


''The  cloud  now  revolves  rapidly  from  right  to  left.  We 
gaze  at  the  magnificent  scene  with  awe  and  wonder.  The 
center  becomes  lower  and  lower,  until  it  resembles  a  funnel 


Tornado  at  GrinneU,  Towa,  June  17,  1882.  Debris  of  Dr.  Ford's  dwelling,  ^ 

looking  east.  From  a  Photograph.  \ 

The  truth  now  bursts  upon  us.    //  is  a  tornado!    We  hear  its  | 

awful  roar  like  an  earthquake  or  distant  thunder.    The  fun-  i 


72 


nel  rapidly  descends  till  it  reaches  the  earth.  It  moves  rap- 
idly northward.  It  rises,  a  dark  cone  ascends  from  the 
ground  to  meet  it,  and  it  descends.  It  strikes  the  river.  All 
the  water  is  drawn  from  the  channel,  perceptibly  widening 
the  cone.  From  the  first  the  tornado  has  had  the  appearance 
of  a  waterspout  at  sea.  We  think  it  is  coming  near  us.  We 
can  now  see  its  fury.  It  is  not  far  away.  Shall  we  leave  the 
house  ?  No,  for  we  are  not  certain  on  which  side  it  will 
pass.  We  are  apparently  as  safe  here  as  elsewhere.  We  can 
only  trust  in  Providence.  The  windows  are  nailed  fast. 
Three  of  us  lean  against  the  door  which  is  nearest  the  storm. 
The  rest  go  into  the  cellar.  It  is  about  4  p.  m.  A  moment 
of  breathless  suspense  and  the  storm  strikes  us.  The  timbers 
creak,  the  sides  of  the  house  sway  in  and  out.  Surely,  they 
cannot  outlast  it.  We  hear  no  well-defined  roar  now,  for  on 
the  outside,  boards  and  other  debris  are  fiercely  clashing.  All 
is  dark  within.  In  about  fifteen  minutes  the  storm  is  over. 
We  leave  the  house.  The  center  of  the  storm  has  passed  to 
the  west  of  us  and  we  can  see  its  dark  form  moving  away  in 
a  northeast  direction. " 

After  leaving  this  point  a  neighbor  was  visited,  and  with 
what  awful  results!  It  makes  the  blood  chill  in  the  veins  to 
rehearse  the  horrors  of  the  scene.  Wild  and  dreadful  was  the 
carnage  of  that  hour.  The  buildings,  the  hard  earnings  of 
many  years,  were  swept  from  the  earth.  A  large,  two-horse 
sulky  plow,  weighing  700  pounds,  was  carried  a  distance  of 
thirty-five  rods,  breaking  off  one  of  the  iron  wheels  attached 
to  an  iron  axle  if  inches  in  diameter.  Two  stoves  were 
found  broken  into  small  pieces,  not  any  of  them  larger  than 
six  or  eight  inches  square.  Wagon  hubs  without  a  single 
spoke  in  them,  wagon  tires  curled  into  fantastic  shapes, 
pieces  of  clothing  and  bedding  wound  about  sticks  and  tim- 
bers or  scattered  over  the  prairie,  were  the  only  signs  of  a 
once  thrifty  home.  Upon  the  destruction  of  the  house  one 
of  the  daughters  was  ca^rried  by  the  wind  200  yards  to  the 


73 


northwest,  and  thrust  head  foremost  into  a  barbed-wire  fence. 
She  was  almost  instantly  killed,  the  clothing  was  stripped 
from  her  body,  which  was  found  covered  with  black  mud 
and  her  hair  matted  with  it.    The  posts  along  the  fence  for  a 


Tornado  at  Grinnell,  la.,  June  17,  1882.  General  view  looking  in  direction 
taken  by  the  storm.  From  a  Photograph.  Dr.  Grinnell's  house  in  background. 
Shadow  under  the  floor  shows  the  place  from  which  he  took  his  wife  and  four 
children  unharmed. 


distance  of  twenty-five  rods  were  covered  on  the  south,  side 
with  mud,  straw,  chaff,  and  bits  of  rags  to  a  depth  of  nearly 
three  inches,  and  near  the  bottom  of  the  posts  it  was  one 


74 


foot  thick.  It  was  plastered  on  as  if  thrown  with  the  greatest 
velocity,  requiring  a  sharp  instrument  and  considerable  phys- 
ical exertion  to  make  an  impression  upon  it.  Five  of  the 
posts  were  literally  pulled  out  of  the  ground  from  a  depth  of 
twenty-eight  inches.  The  wire  was  stripped  from  the  posts 
and  wound  up  into  a  ball.  The  eldest  son  was  carried  thirty 
rods  to  the  northeast  into  a  wheat  field,  his  clothing  torn  into 
shreds,  and  his  body  covered  with  black  mud.  Another 
daughter  had  a  piece  of  board  driven  nearly  through  the 
fleshy  portion  of  her  thigh,  cutting  a  gash  about  seven  inches 
wide;  the  board  was  pulled  out  of  the  flesh  during  the  storm, 
probably  by  the  violence  of  the  wind.  The  ghastly  wound, 
upon  being  examined  by  the  attending  surgeon,  was  found  to 
contain  pieces  of  nails,  straw,  mud,  and  splinters  of  wood. 
In  all  cases  women  suffered  the  most,  as  they  were  divested 
of  their  garments  and  left  perfectly  at  the  mercy  of  the  flying 
debris  that  filled  the  air.  The  hair  of  all  persons  caught  in 
the  midst  of  the  storm  was  so  matted  with  mud  that  their 
heads  had  to  be  shaved  in  order  to  clean  them.  It  seemed  as 
if  the  mud  belonged  there  naturally,  and  that  the  hair  was 
but  a  mere  usurper.  Eyea  and  ears  were  also  filled  with 
mud,  preventing  the  natural  use  of  these  senses.  All  of  the 
wounds  received  were  torn  and  'jagged,  and  found  mostly 
upon  the  back  of  the  body  and  running  upward.  Two 
strangers  passing  by  at  the  time  of  the  storm  stopped  at  the 
barns  to  seek  shelter.  One  of  them  was  repeatedly  dashed  to 
the  ground  and  rolled  about  until  death  came  to  release  him 
from  his  sufferings.  The  other  took  refuge  in  a  straw-stack 
which  was  turned  over  upon  him,  and  then  finally  scattered 
in  every  direction.  When  completely  left  to  the  mercy  of  the 
elements  he  was  lifted  in  the  air,  how  high  he  did  not 
know,  but  while  above  the  ground  he  came  in  contact  with 
the  tail  or  mane  of  a  horse,  which  he  grasped,  but  was  finally 
separated  from,  coming  down  to  the  earth,  with  hat  in  one 
hand  and  hair  in  the  other.    A  light,  two-horse  wagon,  with 


7S 


one  horse  attached,  the  other  being  killed  by  flying  debris, 
was  observed  at  a  height  of  about  loo  feet  in  the  air.  A 
large  barn  forty  feet  square,  with  sixteen-foot  posts,  v/as  com- 
pletely demolished,  and  every  timber  carried  away  from  the 


Tornado  at  Grinnell,  Iowa,  June  17,  1882.  General  view  looking  east. 
Wrecked  buggy  with  spokes  blown  out  of  hub.   From  a  Photograph. 


foundation.  Six  horses  were  killed,  two  outright,  and  the 
others  so  seriously  injured  by  flying  debris  driven  into  their 
bodies  that  they  had  to  be  shot.  One  animal  was  badly 
mangled  about  the  body,  and  bad  nearly  all  of  its  bones 


76 


broken,  having  fallen  from  a  considerable  height,  making  a 
large  depression  in  the  tough  sod  of  the  prairie.  Eighteen 
fat  hogs,  weighing  from  300  to  500  pounds  each,  were  killed 
outright,  and  six  others  died  afterwards  from  their  injuries. 


Tornado  at  Grinnell,  Iowa,  Juno  17,  1882.  Ruins  of  Geor^re  Parse's  resi- 
dence.  From  a  Photograph.   Six  wounded.   Mrs.  Parse  blown  50U  feet. 


One  hog  weighing  300  pounds  had  a  scantling  seven  feet 
long  and  six -inches  square  driven  lengthwise  through  its 
body.  Another  had  a  fence-board  driven  through  it  in  the 
same  manner,  and  still  another  had  a  sharp-pointed  post 


77 


driven  through  the  body  from  side  to  side ;  one  was  carried 
300  yards  out  on  the  prairie.  Two  new  lumber  wagons 
were  carried  from  thirty-five  to  fifty  rods  in  different  direc- 
tions and  torn  to  pieces.  One  of  the  wheels  was  carried  a 
distance  of  one  mile  to  the  northwest.  In  other  instances 
wheels  were  broken  from  the  axles,  the  spokes  twisted  from 
their  sockets,  and  the  large,  heavy,  iron  tires  twisted  into  the 
most  fantastic  shapes.    A  log  twelve  feet  long  and  ten  inches 


Tornado  at  Grinnell,  Iowa,  June  17,  1882.    Ruins  of  Dr.  Grinnell's  resi- 
dence. From  a  Photograpli. 


in  diameter  was  carried  320  rods  to  the  northwest.  The 
front  iron  axle  ( inches  in  diameter)  of  a  top  buggy  was 
found  bent  double,  the  two  ends  crossing  each  other,  and 
both  wheels  were  torn  off  even  to  the  hubs.  The  rear  axle, 
with  wheels  attached,  was  carried  one  quarter  of  a  mile  to  the 
northwest.  A  wooden  sill  eight  by  ten  inches  and  sixteen 
feet  long  was  carried  twelve  rods  to  the  northwest.  A  cat 
was  found  half  a  mile  northeast  of  the  house  in  which  she 


78 


was  seen  just  before  the  storm,  with  every  hone  broken  and 
the  body  crushed  as  flat  as  if  it  had  been  passed  through  a 
cider-press.  Chickens  were  stripped  of  their  feathers  and 
carried  long  distances,  one  being  found  three  miles  to  the 
northeast. 

The  iron  mold-board  of  a  heavy,  wooden-beam  plow  was 
found  driven  into  the  ground  so  firmly  that  it  had  to  be  dug 
out.  Osage  hedges  were  filled  with  debris  that  defied  re- 
moval without  digging  the  bushes  from  the  earth. 

THE  lee's  summit  TORNADO,    JACKSON   COUNTY,  MISSOURI. 
MAY  3OTH,  1879. 

''At  a  little  past  7:00  p.  m.  I  saw  the  funnel-shaped  cloud 
whirling  terribly  and  approaching  from  Mr.  Hutchins.  I 
was  standing  near  the  center  of  the  south  frame  part  of 
the  house,  and  rushed  to  the  south  door  to  hold  it,  but 
before  I  could  pull  a  chest  to  the  door  from  a  distance  of 
ten  feet  the  storm-cloud  was  upon  us.  The  wind  struck 
the  south  end  of  the  house  first,  raising  it  from  the  foun- 
dation ;  then  the  log  and  frame  parts  to  the  north  were  struck 
upon  the  east  side,  also  raising  them  from  the  foundation, 
when  the  top  of  the  entire  house  fell  in,  and  the  whole 
confused  mass  was  turned  over  twice  to  the  northwest.  It 
was  left  there  but  for  a  moment,  apparently  to  give  the 
whirling  current  time  to  pass  around  the  barn  to  the  west 
and  south,  which  it  did  without  injuring  it,  but  throwing 
down  the  surrounding  trees." 

Returning  to  the  house,  \yhich  it  did  almost  instantly, 
the  violent  southwest  current  carried  all  but  the  west 
side  back  to  the  north,  a  distance  of  several  hundred 
yards,  smashing  everything  into  kindling-wood.  No 
part  of  the  roof  and  upper  floors  could  ever  be  found. 
Mr.  Warden,  Jr.,  was  carried  with  the  house  to  the  north- 
west, and  while  the  current  passed  to  the  barn,  was  held 
between  two  of  the  floors  and  badly  bruised,  and  on  the 


79 

return  of  the  current  was  carried  to  the  north  200  yards. 
His  father  and  younger  brother  pursued  about  the  same 
course,  except  that  the  former  was  blown  to  the  northwest 


Tornado  at  Kansas  City,  July  17, 1880.   Ruins  of  Carrigan's  barn,  cor.  17th 
St.  and  Madison  Ave.  From  a  Photograph. 


and  there  remained  with  the  west  side  of  the  house,  while 
the  latter  was  carried  to  a  point  within  a  few  feet  of  his 
elder  brother. 


8o 


All  of  the  parties  were  covered  with  mud  from  head  to 
foot ;  eyes,  mouths,  and  ears  filled,  and  clothing  torn  into 
shreds.  The  elder  son  had  his  head  and  face  cut,  and 
shoes  torn  from  his  feet,  one  of  them  being  found  at  the 
house,  and  the  other  carried  one-fourth  of  a  mile  to  the 
northeast.  His  trousers  and  shirt  were  torn  into  strips, 
hair  matted  with  black  mud,  his  face  bruised,  and  dirt 
driven  into  the  flesh. 

The  mother  and  two  small  children  were  left  in  the 
rubbish,  the  former  having  her  head  crushed,  and  her  long 
hair,  which  reached  below  her  waist,  was  partly  cut  and 
partly  torn  from  the  scalp,  twisted  into  a  rope,  and  found 
several  feet  from  her  body.  That  portion  of  the  hair  left 
upon  the  scalp  was  twisted  into  little  wisps  and  mixed 
with  mud.  The  baby  was  thrown  to  the  southeast  about 
twenty  yards,  and  another  child  was  carried  to  the  west 
112  feet,  and  two  large  splinters  driven  through  its  thigh, 
one  of  which  came  from  Mr.  Hutchin's  house,  one-fourth 
of  a  mile  to  the  southwest,  it  being  identified  by  the  pecu- 
liar color  of  the  paint  upon  it.  A  little  girl  was  thrown 
six  rods  to  the  northwest  and  uninjured.  In  all  cases  cuts 
were  made  only  upon  the  heads,  and  bruises  upon  the  body. 
All  the  members  of  the  family  had  their  hair  matted  with 
mud  and  their  clothing  so  filled  with  it,  that  it  was  impossi- 
ble, even  after  a  number  of  washings,  to  render  the  gar- 
ments fit  for  use. 

The  bodies  of  most  of  the  children,  after  having  been 
washed  daily  for  four  days,  were  still  covered  with  specks 
of  fine  dirt  and  bits  of  leaves,  which  seemed  to  be  driven 
into  the  flesh. 

The  following  will  indicate  some  of  the  peculiar  freaks 
of  the  storm  :  A  carpet  upon  the  floor  of  the  log  part  of 
the  house  and  securely  tacked  about  the  edges  was  taken 
up  and  carried  out  of  the  house  without  being  torn.  A 
new  sewing  machine  was  broken  into  forty  or  fifty  pieces. 


8i 


Fine  feather  beds  were  torn  into  strips,  and  the  contents 
scattered  broadcast  over  the  country.  Several  garments 
were  carried  five  or  six  miles  to  the  northeast.  An  iron 
kettle  holding  fifteen  gallons  was  broken  into  six  pieces, 


Tornado  at  Kansas  City,  JtQy  17,  1880.  Mr.  Doggett's  house,  cor.  IGtli  and 
Dripps  Sts.   From  a  Photograph. 


and  scattered  about  in  several  directions.  A  ten-gallon  keg 
filled  with  vinegar  was  carried  to  the  northeast  forty  rods. 
A  large  iron-bound  trunk,  fitted  with  an  extra  heavy  lock, 
was  torn  to  pieces  and  the  lock  found  a  half  mile  to  the 


82 


northeast,  sticking  into  one  of  the  rails  of  a  fence.  Several 
photographs,  which  were  known  to  have  been  securely  placed 
in  an  album*  which  was  packed  in  the  trunk,  were  found  on 
the  ground,  a  distance  of  over  four  miles  to  the  northeast. 
A  vest  belonging  to  i\Ir.  Warden  and  containing  his  watch, 
was  carried  out  of  the  house.  The  watch,  becoming  sepa- 
rated from  the  vest,  was  carried  by  the  wind  fifty  yards  to 


Tornado  at  Kansas  City,  Jtdy  17,  1880.  Mr.  Post's  house,  19th  and  Mercer 
Sts.    From  a  Photograph. 


the  northeast,  and  found  covered  with  mud.  The  vest  was 
carried  to  the  east  a  distance  of  twenty  yards.  Several 
chickens  were  carried  to  the  northeast,  a  distance  of  about 
one  mile,  and  entirely  stripped  of  their  feathers.  Two 
stoves  were  broken  into  small  pieces,  but  one  standing 
near  the  middle  of  the  house  escaped  uninjured. 


84 


Heavy  bed-quilts  were  so  filled  with  mud  that  when 
dry  they  were  as  stiff  and  hard  as  boards.  A  lumber 
wagon  was  carried  to  the  northwest  ten  rods,  the  box  torn 
to  pieces,  and  nearly  all  of  the  spokes  taken  out  of  the 
wheels.  An  iron-beam  plow,  standing  twenty-five  feet 
west  of  the  house,  was  not  moved  or  injured,  and  a  seed- 
drill  and  harrow,  near  the  barn,  were  also  untouched.  The 
debris  from  the  house  was  scattered  over  a  region  of  coun- 
try  one  mile  wide  by  five  miles  long.  The  path  of  great- 
est destruction  was  eighty  rods  wide,  but  fences  were  torn 
down  for  a  breadth  of  nearly  two  miles. 

Another  dreadful  disaster  in  the  course  of  this  storm 
occurred  at  the  house  of  the  ill-fated  Harris  family.  It  was 
situated  in  a  little  ravine  near  one  of  the  branches  of  Sni-a-bar 
Creek,  one-half  mile  east  of  Blue  Springs,  and  sixty  feet  west 
of  the  storm's  center.  The  family,  consisting  of  father,  mother, 
and  four  children,  ran  out  of  the  house  on  the  approach  of 
the  storm,  the  former  and  one  or  two  of  the  children  first 
moving  to  the  northwest,  but  thinking  that  the  cloud  was 
coming  directly  towards  them  in  that  position,  they  turned 
back  to  the  east,  and  by  the  time  they  had  reached  a  point 
about  on  a  line  with  the  storm  s  course,  they  were  struck  by  it. 

The  father  and  baby  were  carried  into  a  field  northeast  of 
the  house,  a  distance  of  150  yards,  coveied  with  mud  and 
bruises,  and  found  in  the  agonies  of  death. 

The  mother,  who  had  not  succeeded  in  getting  as  far  away 
from  the  house  as  the  two  former,  was  carried  to  the  east 
seventy-five  yards,  and  lodged  against  a  small  tree,  around 
which  her  body  was  partially  twisted.  Her  skull  was 
crushed,  and  she  died  in  a  few  minutes  after  being  found. 
Her  clothes  were  stripped  from  her  body,  which  was  bedaubed 
with  mud  from  head  to  foot.  One  girl,  eight  years  old,  was 
found  dead  and  mangled  in  the  center  of  the  storm's  path,  a 
distance  of  fifty  yards  northeast  of  the  house.  One  boy  was 
blown  into  a  straw-stack,  a  distance  of  forty-five  yards  to  the 


86 


northeast.  A  little  girl  was  found  eighty  yards  to  the  north- 
east, lying  in  the  center  of  the  storm's  path.  The  two  latter 
were  not  dangerously  injured. 

Those  who  examined  the  bodies  of  the  dead,  among  them 
a  physician,  stated  that  after  they  were  washed  the  entire  sur- 
face was  found  to  be  ecchymosed  ;  or,  in  other  words,  they 
had  been  so  severely  bruised  and  dashed  about  by  the  vio- 
lence of  the  wind,  that  the  flesh  was  nearly  black  by  the 
settling  of  the  blood  in  the  tissues  of  the  skin. 

The  ground  upon  which  the  house  stood  was  swept  as 
clean  as  if  scourged  by  fire.  There  was  hardly  a  vestige 
of  clothing  anywhere  to  be  found.  Now  and  then  a  small 
rag  could  be  seen  fluttering  from  some  tree-top,  caught  upon 
a  rail  fence,  or  wound  around  some  broken  piece  of  timber. 

The  creek,  about  half  a  mile  southeast  of  where  the  house 
stood,  was  found  choked  up  with  a  mixture  of  straw,  rags, 
feathers,  kitchen  utensils,  rails,  boards,  household  furniture, 
and  pieces  of  farming  implements.  Wagon  hubs  were  to  be 
found  with  every  spoke  gone,  some  broken  ofl"  and  some 
pulled  out.  Two  heavy  quarter-inch  wagon  tires  were 
twisted  into  knots.  The  iron  mold-board  of  a  plow,  one-half 
inch  in  thickness,  was  broken  in  two,  and  one  of  the 
parts  driven  into  the  ground  a  depth  of  9^  inches.  There 
was  not  a  single  farming  implement  or  article  of  furniture 
that  was  not  rendered  unserviceable. 

TORNADO  AT  MARSHALL  COUNTY,    KANSAS,  MAY  3OTH,   1 8  79. 

The  following  relates  chiefly  to  some  of  the  dreadful  experi- 
ences in  the  great  tornado  of  May  30th,  1879,  at  Irving, 
Marshall  County,  Kansas. 

'*The  funnel-cloud  now  swept  on  a  mile  and  a  half  over 
the  valley  beyond  the  town,  scattering  fences  and  twisting  off 
small  trees  until  it  reached  the  Big  Blue  River  at  a  point 
about  800  feet  south  of  the  large  iron  bridge.  In  crossing 
the  river  the  clouds  struck  the  heavily  wooded  bluffs  on  the 
eastern  bank,  rising  from  75  to  150  feet,  and  turned  imme- 


87 


diately  up  the  river,  striking  the  bridge  squarely  from  the 
south,  which  it  lifted  bodily  from  the  two  stone  piers  and  one 
abutment,   and    dashed  it  into  the    river.     So  completely 


Tornado  near  Connersville,  Ind.,  May  14,  1883,  about  7:00  P.  M.  Ruins  of  an 
iron  bridge  lifted  from  abutments  and  dashed  into  the  river  below.  From  a 
Photograph. 


twisted  into  shapeless  ruin  was  the  large  mass  of  iron  rods 
and  stringers  that  it  entirely  disappeared  from  view  in  a  few 


88 


feet  of  water.  The  superstructure  rested  upon  a  heavy  stone 
abutment  at  the  east  end,  and  upon  two  stone  piers  rising  22 
feet  above  the  water,  one  in  the  center  and  the  other  at  the 
western  extremity  of  the  first  iron  span.  From  this  pier  to 
the  western  bank  of  the  river,    140  feet,   a  wooden  trestle- 


Tornado  near  Connersville,  Ind.,  May  14,  1883.   See  also  page  87,  anotlier 
view  of  same  bridge.   From  a  Photograph. 

work  completed  the  structure.  Thirty  feet  of  the  eastern 
end  of  this  trestle  was  carried  away  with  the  iron  spans  and 
deposited  in  the  river.  Where  the  wooden  portion  separated, 
timbers  lo  to  15  inches  square,  fastened  with  heavy  iron 


89 


bolts,  were  broken  asunder  as  if  they  had  been  pipe-stems. 
The  iron  portion  of  the  bridge  consisted  of  two  spans  of  125 
feet  each,  and  four  chords  with  a  rise  each  of  1 8  feet,  weigh- 
ing twenty-seven  tons  to  the  chord.    Several  of  the  large  iron 


Tornado  at  Gi  iimell,  Iowa,  June  17,  1882.   Portion  of  train  on  Iowa  Central, 
east  of  track.  From  a  Photograph. 

rods,  2  J  inches  in  diameter,  sticking  out  of  the  water  upon  the 
sandy  beach  were  found  broken  square  in  two;  smaller  ones, 
and  broad,  flat  strips  of  iron  were  twisted  into  fantastic  shapes. 


go 


So  easily  and  yet  so  completely  was  the  great  structure 
lifted  from  its  foundation  that  but  two  of  the  top  stones  were 
moved  from  the  eastern  pier.  This  was  perhaps  the  most 
terrific  manifestation  of  force  ever  exhibited  by  any  storm  in 


Tornado  at  GrinneU,  Iowa,  June  17, 1882.  Portion  of  train  on  Iowa  Central 
west  of  track.  From  a  Pliotograpli. 


this  section  of  country.  The  structure  was  practically  new, 
having  been  built  but  a  few  years  before  at  a  cost  of  $20,000. 
The  cloud  from  this  point  passed  up  the  river,  following  the 
bends  to  the  north  and  northwest  for  a  distance  of  about 


91 


i,200  feet,  when  it  reached  a  small  'draw  '  from  250  to  300 
feet  wide,  cutting  up  through  the  bluffs  to  the  east  and  reach- 
ing the  high  prairie  beyond.  Up  this  opening  the  cloud 
ascended  with  terrible  fury,  uprooting  and  breaking  off  large 
oaks  and  hickories  18  inches  to  three  feet  in  diameter,  and 
plowing  up  the  earth  in  deep  furrows.  While  passing  up  the 
river  the  water  was  subjected  to  the  extraordinary  violence  of 
the  whirling  currents  of  air  and  forced  backward  on  either 
side  to  the  banks,  exposing  to  view  the  bed  of  the  stream  for 
a  considerable  distance.  The  violent  uprush  of  the  air  in  the 
center  of  the  cloud  carried  the  water  in  spray  above  the  tops 
of  the  highest  trees. " 

A  further  description  of  this  storm,  in  the  vicinity  of  Irving, 
Kansas,  presents  a  thrilling  account  of  the  terrible  devasta- 
tion wrought  by  it.  A  heavy  westerly  wirfd,  causing  consid- 
erable damage,  prevailed  at  Waterville  and  Blue  Springs, 
eight  miles  to  the  northwest.  This  current  passed  eastward 
to  Irving,  reaching  the  town  after  the  first  storm  had  disap- 
peared on  the  high  prairie  beyond  the  river.  In  the  wake 
of  the  first  tornado  a  warm  southerly  wind  passed  over  the 
town  accompanied  by  rain.  The  sun,  now  partially  exposed 
beneath  the  heavy  clouds  lining  the  western  horizon,  threw 
its  warm  rays  upon  the  terror-stricken  inhabitants,  who,  at 
this  welcome  invitation,  assuring  them  as  they  thought  of 
peace  and^ protection,  emerged  from  their  cellars  and  dug-outs 
to  witness  the  destruction  already  committed  and  relieve 
their  suffering  neighbors.  Hardly  had  the  people  recovered 
from  the  first  shock,  when  there  appeared  in  the  West  a 
cloud  of  inky  blackness  and  enormous  dimensions,  present- 
ing a  square  front  of  apparently  two  miles  in  width  and  a 
perpendicular  height  from  earth  to  sky.  It  moved  along 
slowly,  but  with  the  most  inconceivable  majesty  of  force,  an 
nihilating  everything  within  its  reach.  The  cloud  is  now 
at  the  outskirts  of  the  town,  and  as  it  begins  to  execute  its 
frightful  mission  of  death  and  destruction  the  earth  fairly 


92 


quakes  and  trembles.  All  nature  stands  aghast,  and  every 
living  thing  seeks,  but  in  vain,  to  find  security  from  the  im- 
pending danger.  Many  people  actually  believe  that  the 
Judgment  Day  has  come,  and  offer  fervent  prayers  and  loud 
appeals  for  preservation.  But  the  hand  of  mercy  stays  not 
the  dreadful  carnage.  It  begins.  The  awful  roar,  like  the 
belchings  forth  of  a  thousand  Columbiads,  drowns  the  most 
piercing  cries  of  the  wounded.  The  cloud  strikes  into  a 
cluster  of  eighteen  houses  and  other  buildings  filled  with 
human  beings  and  the  accumulations  of  years. 

In  an  instant  everything  is  swept  from  the  earth  in  terrible 
ruin.  Death  is  experienced  in  its  most  dreadful  forms. 
At  the  house  of  a  Mr.  Keeney,  the  father,  mother,  and 
grandfather  were  blown  two  hundred  yards  to  the  northeast, 
where  they  were  f6und  lying  within  a  few  feet  of  each  other 
mangled  and  dead.  Mrs.  Keeney  was  dashed  head  foremost 
into  the  soft  ground  up  to  her  shoulders,  entirely  stripped 
of  her  clothing,  and  covered  with  black  mud.  The  other 
two  were  partially  stripped  of  their  garments  and  also  covered 
with  mud,  which  was  fairly  beaten  into  their  clothes.  The 
three  children  of  this  family  were  carried  by  the  wind  several 
hundred  yards,  stripped  of  their  clothing,  their  bodies  cov- 
ered with  mud,  but  they  were  not  killed. 

The  house  of  a  Mr.  Sheldon  was  crushed  to  the  earth  and 
portions  of  the  debris  carried  for  miles  in  the  air.  A  daughter, 
twenty-two  years  of  age,  was  blown  to  the  southeast  a  distance 
of  two  hundred  yards,  into  a  low,  wet  piece  of  ground. 
Nearly  every  bone  in  her  body  was  broken,  and  the  flesh  in 
many  places  terribly  lacerated  by  flying  debris.  The  body 
was  found  in  a  perfectly  nude  condition  and  almost  unrecog- 
nizable, because  of  the  grass  and  mire  beaten  into  it. 
Mr.  Leddy's  house  was  surrounded  by  a  grove  of  cotton- 
wood  trees  and  a  picket  fence.  The  building  was  lifted 
bodily  above  the  tops  of  the  highest  trees  and  dashed  to 
pieces  upon  the  earth.    The  east  and  south  fencing  was  car- 


94 


ried  away,  and  those  of  the  trees  left  standing  were  stripped 
of  every  portion  of  bark  and  foliage  and  most  of  the  limbs. 
Wound  about  their  trunks  and  fluttermg  from  the  bare  limbs 
were  fragment  of  garments,  strips  of  long  prairie  grass  and 
scraps  of  paper.  On  that  portion  of  the  picket  fence  not 
destroyed,  there  hung  shreds  of  every  article  of  clothing 
common  to  the  household;  and  within  a  radius  of  thirty  to 
forty  rods  lay  portions  of  chairs,  sofas,  bedsteads,  stoves,  tins, 
and  crockery-ware,  mingled  with  shingles,  lath,  shedding, 
clap-boards,  sills,  doors,  window-frames,  etc.  The  utter  des- 
olation was  dreadful  to  behold.  A  few  moments  before, 
health,  happiness,  and  plenty  made  these  homes  the  scene 
of  comfort,  where  now  grim  death  and  absolute  waste  reigned 
supreme. 

The  effect  upon  those  who  were  left  to  mourn  the  tragical 
death  of  friends  and  relations  was  pitiful  in  the  extreme. 
This  prosperous  community  had  been  scourged  by  a  fell  de- 
stroyer more  dreadful  than  either  flood  or  fire,  epidemic  or 
war.  It  came  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye  and  all  was  gone  ; 
life,  property,  happiness  crushed  and  annihilated;  swept 
with  lightning  speed  into  eternity.  The  little  graveyard 
was  dotted  with  many  fresh  mounds.  The  power  of  the  tor- 
nado-cloud for  a  few  moments  had  sufficed  to  accomplish  what 
disease  and  accident  had  not  done  in  years.  The  terrible 
storms  of  May  29th  and  30th,  1879,  will  never  be  forgotten 
in  the  States  of  Kansas,  Missouri,  Iowa,  and  Nebraska. 
Night  after  night  following  the  storms,  hundreds  of  people 
never  went  to  bed  ;  but,  with  lanterns  trimmed,  peered  into 
the  darkness  watching  for  a  recurrence  of  the  dreadful  scenes 
through  which  they  had  just  passed.  Every  dark  cloud  or 
sudden  freshening  of  the  wind  filled  them  with  evil  forebod- 
ings which  could  not  be  allayed  until  every  vestige  of  sup- 
posed danger  had  vanished.  The  terror  depicted  upon  the 
countenances  of  the  bravest  men  at  the  sight  of  a  dark  cloud, 
though  it  might  be  perfectly  harmless,  was  something  beyond 


95 


description  or  realization,  except  by  those  who  could  witness 
their  excitement.  Persons  were  preparing  to  quit  the  coun- 
try; business  of  every  kind  succumbed  for  a  season  except 
that  of  generously  supplying  the  wants  of  the  sufferers  by 
well-organized  relief  committees.  Many  acts  of  self-sacrifice 
and  devotion  redound  to  the  glory  and  honor  of  Kansas 
people. 

THE  SOUTH  CAROLINA  TORNADO  OF  APRIL  i6tH,   1 879. 

The  following  information  relates  to  the  tornado  of  April 
1 6th,  1879,  near  Wakerborough,  South  Carolina.  The  data 
are  taken  from  the  Chief  Signal  Officer's  report  for  1879. 

VELOCITY  AND  FORCE  OF  THE  WIND  IN  THE  CLOUD  VORTEX. 


A  pigeon-house  exposing  24  square  feet  of  surface  to  the 
action  of  the  wind,  and  weighing  1,000  pounds,  was  carried 


Tornado  at  Kansas  City,  July  17,  1880.  Mr.  Post's  liouse,  19tli  and  Mercer 
Sts.   From  a  Pliotograph. 


96 

8o  feet  and  demolished  against  a  house.  By  adding  to  this 
one-third  of  its  weight  for  friction ,  the  least  possible  wind  velocity 
required  to  move  it  is  105  miles  per  hour.  It  may  have  been 
twice  that  velocity. — A  one-story  house  exposing  200  square 
feet  to  the  wind  and  weighing  15,000  pounds  was  carried  a 
distance  of  six  feet.  Least  required  velocity,  142  miles  per 
hour. — A  church  exposing  a  surface  of  1,000  square  feet  to 
the  wind  and  weighing  50,000  pounds  was  carried  20  feet  from 
its  foundation  and  demolished.  Velocity  required,  116  miles 
per  hour. — A  house  exposing  360  square  feet  of  surface  and 
weighing  25,000  pounds  was  moved  20  feet  from  its  founda- 
tion. Least  required  velocity,  136  miles  per  hour. — ^A  store- 
room weighing  10,000  pounds  and  exposing  128  square  feet 
of  surface,  tilted  to  an  angle  of  45°.  Velocity  required,  144 
miles  per  hour. — A  piece  of  timber  weighing  600  pounds,  its 
greatest  surface  exposed  to  the  wind  being  20  square  feet, 
was  carried  440  yards.  Least  velocity  required,  90  miles  per 
hour. — A  buggy  weighing  150  pounds  was  carried  up  in  the 
whirl,  and  the  pieces  hung  on  a  tree  at  the  height  of  60  feet 
from  the  earth.  Distance  carried,  300  feet. — Two  panels  of 
fence  weighing  150  pounds  were  carried  a  distance  of  300 
feet. — A  weather-board  was  found  to  have  been  carried  a  dis- 
tance of  six  miles,  it  being  recognized  by  the  paint ;  weight, 
six  pounds. — A  chicken-coop,  strong  box,  4  by  4  feet,  was 
carried  a  distance  of  four  m.iles;  weight,  75  pounds. — A  hick- 
ory tree  54  inches  in  circumference  at  butt,  and  weighing 
3,000  pounds,  was  lifted  out  of  the  ground  and  moved  up  a 
bank  ten  feet. — A  cart  weighing  600  pounds  was  carried  up 
in  the  whirl,  torn  to  pieces,  and  the  tire  of  one  wheel  found 
1,320  yards  distant. — An  iron  chisel  weighing  four  pounds 
was  carried  90  feet,  and  driven  into  a  piece  of  pine  timber  a 
distance  of  2  inches. — Two  large  hubs  of  a  road-wagon,  with- 
out spokes,  but  attached  to  an  iron  axle,  and  weighing  175 
pounds,  were  carried  a  distance  of  750  feet. — A  basket  of 
books  weighing  50  pounds  was  carried  a  distance  of  2^ 


97 


miles,  and  found  hanging  on  a  tree  with  the  contents  intact. — 
A  cart  weighing  400  pounds  was  carried  a  distance  of  125 
feet  and  demoUshed. — Geraniums  in  pots  were  found  by  the 
owner  one  mile  from  town  uninjured. — A  buggy  left  at  a  shop 
near  the  center  of  the  town  to  be  repaired,  could  never  be 
found. — Letters  and  books  were  carried  a  distance  of  6  miles. 


Tornado  at  AuTtJum,  Ala.,  April  15,  1884.  EXUBS  of  a.  dwelling.    From  a 
Photograph* 


98 


Pieces  of  matting  and  dresses  *were  found  lo  miles  away. 
Dead  sheep  were  found  shorn  of  their  wool  to  the  bare  skin, 
by  the  force  of  the  wind. — Fowls  were  plucked  of  their 
feathers  as  if  picked  by  hand. — Birds  were  killed,  and  none 
were  seen  in  the  neighborhood  for  several  days  after  the 
storm. 


Tornado  at  Racine,  Wis.,  May  18, 1883.  House  twisted  from  its  fonndation. 
From  a  Pliotograph. 


On  February  19th,  1884,  the  States  of  Virginia,  North  Car- 
olina, South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Ten- 
nessee, and  Kentucky  were  visited  with  the  most  terrible  de- 
vastation by  wind  ever  experienced  in  this  country.  From  10 
o'clock  in  the  morning  until  1 2  midnight  sixty  tornadoes 
occurred  in  different  parts  of  the  above-named  States.  Rough 
estimates  placed  the  loss  of  property  at  from  $3,000,000  to 


99 


$4,ooo,ooo;  the  loss  of  life  at  800,  and  the  number  of 
wounded  at  2,500.  The  number  of  people  rendered  home- 
less and  destitute  numbered  from  10,000  to  15,000,  many  ot 
whom  were  left  in  a  starving  condition.  The  number  of 
buildings  destroyed  was  about  10,000.  Cattle,  horses,  hogs, 
and  other  domestic  animals  were  destroyed  in  great  numbers. 


Tornado  at  Springfield,  Mo.,  April  18,  1880.    Ruins  of  Catholic  cliurcli. 
From  a  Pliotograph. 


The  tale  of  distress,  ruin,  and  death  might  be  readily  aug- 
mented by  reciting  the  horrors  of  the  Grinnell  tornado,  which 
desolated  a  large  section  of  central  Iowa  on  the  afternoon 
and  night  of  June  17th,  1882.  The  town  of  Grinnell,  with 
its  fine  college  buildings,  was  nearly  swept  from  the  earth, 
and  130  human  souls  dashed  into  eternity  in  less  time  than 
it  takes  to  relate  it. 


lOO 


The  great  tornadoes  of  April  i8th,  1880,  in  southwestern 
Missouri,  destroying  the  town  of  Marshtield,  and  kilUng  over 
100  people. 

The  tornadoes  of  August  3d,  1885,  in  Maryland,  Dela- 
ware, New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania,  destroying  over  two 
millions  worth  of  property  and  many  lives. 

The  tornadoes  of  April  14th,  1886,  in  Minnesota,  destroy- 
ing the  towns  of  Saint  Cloud  and  Sauk  Rapids,  with  a  loss 
of  over  $500,000  and  nearly  100  lives. 

Each  year  sw^ells  the  record  of  death  and  destruction,  and 
makes  the  contempladon  of  these  dreadful  events,  which  oc- 
cur W'ith  so  much  certainty  and  regularity,  a  source  of  the 
deepest  concern  to  those  who  live  in  the  tornado  districts; 
and,  naturally,  turns  the  mind  towards  the  means  for  the  pres- 
ervation of  life  and  indemnification  for  property  loss. 

CHART  NO.  2. 

Chart  No.  2  refers  to  the  very  remarkable  tornadoes  of 
February  19th,  1884. 

On  the  upper  portion  of  the  chart  there  is  delineated  the 
course  of  progressive  movement  of  the  main  storm-center,  or 
the  central  area  of  barometric  minimum.  By  this  is  meant 
the  path  pursued  by  the  general  storm  which  prevailed  over 
the  northern  portion  of  the  United  States  on  the  day  above 
indicated.  It  is  usual  to  represent  the  direction  of  movement 
of  the  center  of  a  great  storm  by  a  line.  In  the  cartographical 
study  of  storms  by  the  Signal  Service  the  position  of  the 
center  is  described  at  three  distinct  times  during  the  24  hours, 
viz.:  At  7  A.  M.,  3  p.  M.,  and  10  p.  m.  To  illustrate  the  direc- 
tion of  movement  and  the  day  and  hour  of  observation, 
the  following  symbol  is  used,  similar  to  that  shown  on  the 
accompanying  chart. 

18  '  IH  18  19 

@ — ^ — © — ^ — 

1  2  3  1 

The  upper  figures  indicate  the  day  of  the  month,  and  the 


I 


loi 

lower  figures  show  the  hour  of  observation,  i  is  equivalent 
to  7  A.  M.,  2  to  3  p.  M.,  and  3  to  10  p.  m.  The  track  of  the 
general  storm  is  shown  for  the  i8th,  19th,  and  20th.  On  the 
lower  portion^f  Chart  No.  2  is  shown  the  position  and  direc- 
tion of  movement  of  the  various  tornadoes  that  occurred  on 
the  19th  of  February,  1884.    The  tracks  are  indicated  by  the 

following  symbol :      X  X  X  X  X  X  ^ —  

The  principal  object  of  this  chart  is  to  show  that  a  definite 
relation  exists  between  the  location  of  the  center  of  the  general 
storm  and  the  place  of  tornado  action  and  development.  It 
is  now  established  beyond  question  that  no  tornadic  action 
ever  takes  place  without  the  presence  (always  north  and 
west  of  the  tornado  region)  of  a  general  storm  or  'Mow/'  as 
it  is  technically  called,  and  that,  too,  of  marked  intensity 
and  peculiar  form.  Now,  it  is  of  great  practical  import- 
ance for  the  public  to  bear  this  fact  in  mind  when  they  are 
watching  the  daiJy  bulletins  and  weather  indications  of  the 
Signal  Service,  which  are  published  broadcast  throughout  the 
country.  Whenever  a  general  storm  is  known  to  be  moving 
eastward  over  the  United  States  in  the  season  of  year  favorable 
for  tornadoes,  the  following  deductions,  which  have  resulted 
from  a  long  and  careful  consideration  of  the  subject,  should 
be  thoughtfully  studied  and  clearly  understood. 

1.  There  is  a  definite  portion  of  an  area  of  low  pressure 
within  which  the  conditions  for  the  development  of  tornadoes 
are  most  favorable,  and  this  is  called  the  dangerous  octant. 

2.  There  is  a  definite  relation  between  the  position  of  tor- 
nado regions  and  the  regions  of  high  contrasts  in  temperature 
(temperature  gradient),  the  former  lying  to  the  south  and 
east. 

3.  There  is  a  similar  definite  relation  of  position  of  tornado 
regions  and  the  region  of  high  contrasts  in  dew-points,  the 
former  being  as  before  to  the  south  and  east. 

4.  The  position  of  tornado  regions,  or  the  area  of  tornadic 
action,  is  to  the  south  and  east  of  the  region  of  high  contrasts 


I02 


of  cool  northerly  and  warm  southerly  winds — a  rule  that 
seems  to  follow  from  the  preceding,  and  is  of  use  when  obser- 
vations of  temperature  and  dew-point  are  not  accessible. 

5.  The  relation  of  tornado  regions  to  thof^movement  of 
upper  and  lower  clouds  shows  that  the  former  indicate  the 
presence  of  the  cold  northwest  current,  and  the  latter  the 
warm  southwest  current  of  air,  which  ultimately  lead  to  the 


4/^ 

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Iw  "§ 
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N  

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development  of  the  high  contrasts  of  temperature  so  essential 
to  the  birth  of  tornadic  action. 

6.  The  study  of  the  relations  of  tornado  regions  to  the 
form  of  barometric  depressions  shows  that  tornadoes  are  more 
frequent  when  the  major  axis  of  the  barometric  trough  trends 
north  and  south  or  northeast  and  southwest,  than  when  it 
trends  east  and  west. 

ILLUSTRATION.      SEE  OPPOSITE  PAGE. 

The  forms  of  barometric  depression,  as  shown  in  diagrams 
Nos.  I  and  2,  are  favorable  to  tornado  development;  those 
shown  in  diagrams  Nos.  3  and  4  are  unfavorable  to  such  de- 
velopment. These  facts  should  be  carefully  considered  when 
examination  is  made  of  the  storm  conditions  as  shown  on  the 
daily  weather-map  of  the  Signal  Service,  which  is  now  dis- 
played in  all  of  the  principal  cities  of  the  country  and  is 
placed  in  the  hands  of  many  private  subscribers. 

The  following  table,  prepared  by  Prof  H.  A.  Hazen,  of  the 
Signal  Service,  presents  very  interesting  and  valuable  informa- 
tion concerning  the  relation  of  the  region  of  tornadic  action 
to  the  position  and  intensity  of  the  area  of  barometric  mini- 
mum or  general  storm-center. 

The  general  average  of  this  table  gives  the  mean  distance 
of  tornadic  action  from  the  'Mow,"  or  storm-center,  as  453 
miles.  The  mean  direction  is  south  39°  east.  The  mean 
temperature  fall  is  ten  degrees  in  259  miles.  The  winds  are 
almost  uniformly  from  the  south  and  southeast,  and  if  from 
any  other  quarter,  all  are  from  that  direction.  The  distances 
to  the  nearest  north  winds  are  variable,  and  in  many  instances 
there  were  no  north  wijids  on  the  map  near  the  ''low ''or 
near  the  tornado.  The  mean  distance  of  north  winds  in 
thirty-one  cases  was  407  miles. 


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LIST  OF   TABLES  GIVING  CONDENSED  INFORMA- 
TIONS CONCERNING    TORNADOES;  GEO- 
GRAPHICAL, FINANCIAL,  CHRON- 
OLOGICAL, DESCRIPTIVE,  ETC. 

The  following  tabulations  present  in  a  comprehensive  and 
concise  manner  the  very  foundation  upon  which  the  super- 
structure of  this  work  has  been  reared. 

Tornado  study  as  submitted  in  these  pages  was  pursued  by 
inductive  methods.  Investigation  was  made  in  the  field,  subject 
to  all  the  inclemencies  of  the  weather. 

The  tornado's  peculiar  formation  and  dreadful  violence  were 
carefully  observed  and  actually  experienced,  no  effort  or  sacri- 
fice being  spared  to  secure  the  unvarnished  facts  without  pre- 
disposition to  any  theory. 

We  have  then  as  the  outcome  of  such  methods  of  study,  a 
compendious  summary  of  tornado  observation  and  research, 
which  has  been  conducted  unremittingly  for  the  past  ten  years 
and  which  will  form  the  ground-work  of  all  future  investigation 
into  this  class  of  meteorological  phenomena. 

The  data  used  in  these  tables  are  matters  of  official  record,  but 
their  presentation  and  arrangement  conform  to  the  ideas  of  the 
author  and  exhibit  a  classification  which  it  is  thought  will  best 
serve  for  the  information  of  those  interested. 


Table  No.  i.  Total  number  of  tornadoes  observed,  1682  to 
1886,  inclusive. 

Table  No.    2.  Violence  of  tornadoes ;  relatively  by  States. 

Table  No.  3.  Violence  of  tornadoes ;  by  States,  including 
loss  of  life  and  property. 

Table  No.    4^  Actual  years  of  tornado  records. 

Table  No.  5.  Periods  of  development  in  different  portions 
of  the  country. 


I07 


Table  No.    6.  Tornado  record  of  the  last  seventeen  years. 

Table  No.    7.  Time  of  occurrence,  hour  of  day  and  night. 

Table  No.    8.  Direction  of  progressive  movement  of  the  cloud. 

Table  No.    9.  Form  of  tornado-cloud. 

Table  No.  10.  Temperature  before  the  tornado. 

Table  No.  11.  Temperature  after  the  tornado. 

Table  No.  12.  Valuation  of  property  destroyed;  by  States. 

Table  No.  13.  Periods  of  observation;  by  States. 

Table  No.  14.  Relative  frequency  ;  by  months. 

Table  No.  15.  Relative  frequency  ;  by  States. 

Table  No.  16.  Relative  frequency;  by  months  and  States. 

Table  No.  17.  Monthly  frequency  expressed  in  percentages; 
by  States. 

Table  No.  18.  Relative  frequency,  days  of  the  month. 

Table  No.  19.  Combination  table,  maximum  frequency,  etc. 

Table  No.  20.  Consideration  of  States  by  quarters. 

Table  No.  21.  Relations  of  tornadoes  to  forests  and  cleared 
land. 

Table  No.  22.  Combination  table  ;  occurrence  by  months, 
States,  etc. 

Table  No.  23.  Hour  of  occurrence,  months  and  States. 


io8 


Table  No.  1. 

A  table  showing  the  total  number  of  Tornadoes  observed  in  the  United  States 
during  a  period  of  205  years,  from  1682  to  1886,  inclusive. 


Statks  and  Territories. 


Missouri,  

Kansas,   

Georgia,  

Illinois,  

Iowa,  

Alabama,  

Ohio,   

Indiana,  

Minnesota,  

Texas,  

Michigan,  

New  York,  

Pennsj'^lvania,  . 

Wisconsin,  

North  Cai  olina, 
South  Carolina, 

Nebraska,  

Mississippi,  

Dakota,   


No.  of 
Storms. 


156 
153 
128 
127 
118 
102 
92 
84 
78 
73 
71 
67 
61 
59 
59 
57 
52 
49 
46 


States  and  Territories,  j  g^^jij^s 


Arkansas,  

Tennessee,  

Kentucky,  

Massachusetts,  

Louisiana,  

Virginia,  

Maryland,  

Connecticut,  

New  Jersey,  

Florida,   

New  Hampshire,  

Maine,   

Indian  Territory,  

Vermont,   

Colorado,  

West  Virginia  

Rhode  Island,  

Delaware,  

District  of  Columbia,. 


34 
31 
26 
22 
19 
18 
16 
13 
12 
10 
8 
7 
6 
4 
4 
2 
1 
1 
1 


Total  number  observed,  1,867 


Table  No.  2. 


The  Violence  of  Tornadoes  expressed  relatively  by  States  in  the  order 
named.  By  A^iolent  in  this  sense  is  meant  the  most  completely  developed  stoi  ms, 
with  perfect  conditions  longest  sustained. 


States. 

States. 

States. 

States. 

Missouri, 

Iowa, 

Alabama, 

Arkansas, 

Georgia, 

South  Carolina, 

Wisconsin, 

Minnesota, 

North  Carolina, 

Michigan, 

Dakota, 

Kansas, 

Illinois, 

Nebraska, 

Ohio, 

Indiana, 

Mississippi, 

Texas, 

New  York, 

Pennsylvania, 

Kentucky, 

Tennessee, 

Virginia, 

Massachusetts, 

Indian  Territory, 

New  Jersey, 

Louisiana, 

Connecticut, 

Vermont, 

Maryland, 

New  Hampshire, 

Maine, 

Khode  Island, 
Delawaie, 
Colorado, 
Florida, 
West  Virginia. 

I09 


Table  No.  3. 

Violence  of  Tornadoes  by  States,  embracing  the  destruction  of  property, 
reportedln  definitely  as  "much,"  "  great.  "  etc.;  loss  of  life,  reported  definitely 
and  indefinitely :  and  numher  of  people  wounded,  reported  definitely  and 
indefinitely. 


Destruction 
property. 

OF 

Lives 

Lost. 

Persons 
Injured. 

STATES. 

ery 

ctive," 
cases. 

uch 

erty," 

cases. 

Town 
troyed," 
of  cases. 

ruction 

at," 

cases. 

c  2 

CP  ^ 

m 
i-^ 

eral," 
cases. 

dreds  " 
cases. 

i-l 

eral," 
cases. 

P  6 

^® 
-  6 

o  o 

■  o 

dest 

I  iM  O. 

-     CO  . 

"  <v  o 

^  6 

6 

Q  !!; 

'A 

"  A 

Alahama, 

6 

28 

68 

1 

6 

117 

5 

b 

Arkansas, 

2 

7 

29 

229 

Connecticut, 

3 

34 

48 

1 

Dakota  Ter., 

7 

6 

29 

42 

1 

Delaware, 

Florida, 

i 

2 

"'6 

"i 

'"6 

G  eorgia, 

7 

30 

150 

2 

7 

192 

6 

Illinois, 

19 

23 

368 

1 

1 

161 

3 

9 

Indiana, 

4 

21 

39 

2 

35 

1 

6 

Indian  Ter., 

1 

1 

21 

1 

43 

1 

Iowa, 

15 

34 

175 

4 

424 

2 

6 

Kansas, 

27 

23 

76 

2 

204 

4 

4 

Kentucky, 

4 

7 

46 

107 

1 

1 

Louisiana, 

5 

12 

55 

1 

1 

Maryland, 

2 

2 

4 

Mass. 

2 

2 

'  3 

8 

Michigan, 

14 

17 

34 

'i 

70 

4 

Minnesota, 

13 

12 

164 

1 

567 

"i 

4 

Mississippi, 

5 

11 

i 

935 

3 

471 

3 

Missouri, 

22 

28 

1 

247 

5 

1050 

5 

4 

Nebraska, 

5 

14 

14 

31 

New  Hamp., 

1 

4 

7 

i 

New  Jersey, 

1 

9 

lil 

New  York, 

14 

13 

15 

29 

"i 

3 

N.  Carolina, 

5 

17 

30 

i 

3 

142 

1 

4 

Ohio, 

18 

16 

i 

154 

3 

252 

4 

11 

Penn., 

7 

14 

1 

142 

2 

2 

23 

2 

3 

Rhode  I 'Id., 

1 

S.  Carolina, 

'2 

13 

104 

"i 

91 

i 

5 

Tennessee, 

1 

5 

11 

9 

1 

1 

Texas, 

18 

12 

102 

'2 

146 

3 

6 

Vermont, 

Virginia, 

2 

i 

"i 

"i 

Wisconsin, 

6 

14 

"i 

141 

"i 

2 

382 

1 

2 

Totals, 

233 

384 

12 

1 

3165 

12 

42 

1 

5049 

40 

95 

Note.— This  table  is  only  approximate  in  its  values,  for  in  many  cases  of  Torna- 
do occurrence  no  reports  could  be  obtained  as  to  loss  of  life  and  injury  to  persons 
and  property.  "  Destruction  of  property"  referred  to  in  this  table  is  entirely 
independent  of  the  money  value  given  in  table  No.  5. 


Table  No.  4. 


Actual  years  of  tornado  Records  represented  in  the  charts  and  tables. 


1082 

1804 

1818 

1830 

1840 

1850 

1860 

1869 

1878 

1728 

1805 

1819 

1831 

1841 

1851 

1861 

1870 

1879 

1720 

1807 

1820 

1832 

1842 

1852 

1862 

1871 

1880 

1761 

1808 

1821 

1833 

1843 

1853 

1863 

1872  ■ 

1881 

1787 

1809 

1822 

1834 

1844 

1854 

1864 

1873 

1882 

1788 

1810 

1823 

1835 

1845 

1855 

1865 

1874 

1883 

1791 

1811 

1824 

1836 

1846 

1856 

1866 

1875 

1884 

1794 

1814 

1826 

1837 

1847 

1857 

1867 

1876 

1885 

1795 

1815 

1827 

1838 

1848 

1858 

1868 

1877 

1886 

1797 

1816 

1829 

1839 

1849 

1859 

Total  uimilDer  of  years,  Eighty-Seven. 

Length  of  Period  (1682-1886),  Two  hundred  and  five  years. 
The  Tornado  for  1682  occurred  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  June  10,  at  2  30  P.  M. 
and  was  exceedingly  destructive. 


Table  No.  5. 

Time  of  Tornado  Development  with  respect  to  Region  of  Country. 
Average  results. 

In  considering  tliis  question  the  application  of  the  rule  is  made  in  a  general 
sense,  and  a  somewhat  arbitrary  geographical  distribution  of  time  over  tliat 
section  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Rockj^  Mountains  is  matle.  Tliere  are 
four  periods  of  time,  and  therefore  four  separate  regions  of  tor  nadio  action,  which 
are  described  as  follows  :— 

First  Period.— December  to  March,  inclusive,  comprising  the  region  embraced 
l)ythe  following  States:  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia, 
Florida,  Alabama,  Mississipi)i,  Tennessee,  and  Southern  Kentucky. 

Second  Period.— April  to  .Tune,  inclusive.  Region  :  Texas,  Louisiana,  Arkan- 
sas, Missouri,  Kansas,  Colorado,  Iowa,  Nebraska,  Dakota,  and  Miunesota<> 

Third  Period.— June  to  August,  incl-isive.  Region:  Wisconsin,  Michigan, 
Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio,  Northern  Kentuckj-,  Western  Penusj^lvania,  \Vestern 
New  York,  and  West  Virginia. 

Fourth  period.— August  to  November,  inclusive.  Region:  Maryland,  Dela- 
ware, New  .Tersey,  Eastern  Pennsylvania,  Eastern  New  York,  and  the  New 
England  States. 


Ill 


Table  No.  6. 

Tornado  Record  of  the  Seventeen  Years  last  past. 


Year. 


Storms. 
Ot)served. 


9 


Year. 


Storms. 
Observed. 


1879  . 

1880  . 

1881  . 

1882  . 

1883  . 

1884  . 

1885  . 

1886  . 


.137 
-114 
-  88 
.161 
.200 
-136 
.280 


1870   

1871    9 

1872    13 

1873    12 

1874    21 

1875  ----   80 

1876    66 

1877    70 

1878    81 

Total  number  in  seventeen  years,  1566. 

A  comparison  of  the  data  presented  in  this  tahle  with  that  shown  in  Nos.  1  and 
8,  reveals  the  fact  that  over  80  per  cent  of  the  observed  tornadoes  belong  to  less 
than  9  per  cent  of  the  length  of  period.  This  fact,  combined  with  a  cursory- 
review  of  table  No.  12,  might  lead  one  to  the  conclusion  that  tornadoes  were  on 
the  increase.  This  would  certainly  be  erroneous,  and  for  the  following  reasons : 

1st.  A  careful  study  of  tornado  development  and  distribution,  shows  that  there 
are  as  many  considerations  to  justify  the  belief  that  tornadoes  were  quite  as 
frequent  a  hundred  years  ago  as  now,  and  that  this  degree  or  frequency  will  not 
be  diminished  for  a  hundred  years  to  come. 

2d.  The  means  of  observation  and  record  for  1886  surpassed  those  of  any  other 
year,  because  the  Signal  Service  had  greater  facilities  for  collecting  reports,  and 
the  rapid  growth  of  the  conntry,  with  a  greater  zeal  of  the  press,  brought  to 
light  many  occurrences  which,  before,  would  have  been  lost  sight  of. 

3d.  A  stady  of  tornado  development  and  distribution  appears  to  indicate  that 
there  are  periods  of  maximum  occurrence,  alternating  with  those  of  minimum 
occurrence,  but  the  truth  of  tlie  supposition  remains  yet  to  be  determined, 
when  more  complete  and  extended  records  are  obtainable. 

4th.  Tornado  records  are  not  yet  sufficiently  full  and  complete  to  permit  the 
deduction  that  they  are  or  are  not  on  the  increase. 

5th.  The  conditions,  atmospheric,topogTaphical,  and  geographical,under  which 
tornadoes  are  peculiar  to  the  United  States,  or  certain  sections  of  it,  have 
remamed  the  same  for  ages,  and  there  is  no  likelihood  of  a  change  in  this  direc- 
tion to  prevent  or  increase  the  occurrence  of  tornadoes. 


'P8AJ8S 

-qo  sia.iois 
JO  o  >c  li?;ox 

112 

Table  No.  7 

1,867 

•yapjoD 
.  -a.i  joa  Qini; 
JO -ox: 

i 

•sasBO  JO  -ox 

CO    ^          ^    o    1    ^  ^ 

1 

1 

Wfhiiii 

IP  ^  1  f  r  ^  f  f  = 

•S9SB0  JO  -OX 

1,039 

TIME. 

\.  to  12.80  p.m. 
111.  to   1.00  " 
'      "    1.80  " 
c      u    2.00  '« 
'     "   2.80  " 
'     "   8.00  " 
'          8.80  " 
'      "   4.00  " 
'     "   4.80  " 
'     "   5.00  " 
'     "    5.80  " 
'     "    0.00  " 
'      "    0.80  " 
'     "    7.00  " 
'     "   7.80  " 
'     "   8.00  " 
'      "   8.80  " 
'     "   9.00  " 
'     "   9.80  " 
'     "  10.00  " 
'     "  10.80  " 
'     "  11.00  " 
'     "  11.80  " 
'     "  12.00  mid 

JO  -OJSr 

iH 

TIME. 

Totals, 

113 


Table  No.  8. 


•p9AJOsqo 

JO  -o^  moj. 


•pQp.IOOOJ 
^Oa  KOI^.39Jip 


JO  -ox 


m   m   m   xfi   ^Ji   m   m   m  m 


•sasEO  JO  -ojsj 


(M 


CO     00  00 


•sasBO  JO  -ojs^E 


i-O  CO 


^     C<l  O 


(M     O  (v^ 


•89S^0  JO  -o^ST 


^     ^  J 

W 


^    ^  ^ 

t    ^  ^ 


114 


•paA.iasQo 
eaopBiLiox 
JO  osL  mo  I 

1,867 

•papjoDOj 

10 II  UIJOJ 

sasuo  JO  'Oisi 

00 
lO 

JO  "OK 

Ti^      Oq  iH  tH  iH   tH      rH  iH 

)  rmation. 

"Whirlwind." 

"  Inverted  funnel." 

"  Elephant's  trunk." 

"  Ball." 

"Whirl." 

"  Local  Whirlwind." 

"A  grayish,  fluffy  J 
mass."  5 

"Immense  dark  ) 
whirling  mass."  S 

"Large  revolving  ] 
cloud  sent  fun-  [ 
nel  roots  to  the  ( 
ground."  ) 

•sasBO  JO  "Oisi 

C  CO  CO  rH  tH  iH  iH      tH  tH 

Formation. 

"Balloon." 

"Waterspout." 

"  Cylindrical." 

"  Pear." 

"Twister." 

"  Huge  Serpent." 

"  Dense  rolling  mass" 

"Dense  cloud  of  ^ 
scowling  hlack-  > 
ness."  ) 

"Two funnels  small ) 
ends  together."  5 

•sas^O  JO  'OK 

T}<OrJlTHHr-lrH   rH  iH 
(MiH 

Formation. 

"  Inverted  cone," 

"  Cone." 

"Serpent." 

"Turnip." 

"Hogshead." 

"Heavy  rolling." 

"Dense  rolling 

"Streams, 20 in  ) 
number."  S 

"  Large  masses,  a 
if  white  sprf 
fell  to  the  earth 

•sasBO  JO  -OSL 

I— 1  r-i  Ti<  iH  iH  iH  tH  iH    iH  rH 
OOrH 

Ci 

1,003 

Formation. 

"Funnel." 

"  Hour-glass,". 

"Basket." 

"Acorn." 

''Column.  ' 

"Dark  mass." 

"  Boiling  cloud." 

"Black  circular  cloud. 

"Clouds  rolled  like  a 
barrel." 

"A  long  streak  like 
a  spout  reaching 
from  bottom  of 
cloud  to  earth." 

Totals. 

"5 


saop^ajox 
JO  -OK  mojL 


•888^0  JO  "O^ 


C^rHrHtHTHrH(>JrHrHrMiHC<lrHC<lrHrHrHiHC^t>tHrHCCrHC^rHrHrHOTHi-HrHrH^ 


oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 
ooor^c<^clc^l(^lcocoT^^Tflo^Oloco^>c350000(^^'^l(^^»clClOco^>xoi»oo 

X  CO  GO  (X)  GO  00  (X)  00  (» (X)  00  (X  GO  CO  OO  X  (X)  GO  Oi  05  Oi  Oi  Oi  Oi  Oi  Oi  O:  CS  05  o:  o:  Oi  O  tH 


■sas-BO  JO  *ojsr 


rHrHTHrHrHrHrHrHr^iHrHC<JrHrHTHrHrHHrHrHrHtHrHrHrHrHC^iHC<lC^iHrHiH 


o  o  o  o 


ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 
OC<J»OiOXXXOOOOOOOO(M<MC^^Tj<iOOiOiC<X>XXOO 
(X><:o:DCDiXiOiXit>t>t>t>t>t>'Xit>L^I>L^t>t>l>l>t>t:^t>t>t>XX 


■S88B0  JO  -o isT 


eas-BO  JO  -OK 


JHiHrHrHrHrHrHOOiHrH 


g  I  o 
q  ©  o 


s  □  ^ 

^  ^  o 

02  P 


O  O 


ft^«2'^ 
ft® 


i  P  r  fl".  "-^  s 


o  ftb"t^4^ 


ii6 


Table  No.  11. 


TEMPERATUKE  AFTER  THE  TORNADO. 


05 

03 

« 

Condition. 

Condition. 

coo; 

Condition. 

OfC 

(Thermomet- 

o 

(Thermomet- 

o 

o 

of  C 
uper 
reco 

6 

rically.) 

d 

rically.) 

d 

d  o-^ 

"  Cooler  and  cliilly." 

*'  Cooler  (next  day)." 

(  Nov., ) 
<  next  J> 
/  morn  S 

66° 

t  April.) 

- 
1 

"  Chilly."  . 

45 

8° 

68° 

1 

"Cool." 

188 

"  Cooler." 

49 

45° 

(May.) 

]^ 

68° 

(May.) 

1 

"  Slightly  cooler." 
"  Much  cooler." 

5 

50° 

(June.) 

69° 

(May.) 

1 

"  Probably  cooler." 
"Cold." 

1 

123 

54° 

(April.) 

1 

70° 

(July.) 

1 

"Very  cold." 

"  Suddenly  very  cold.' 

"  Colder." 

8 

1 

56° 

(April.) 

2 

72° 

(June.) 

1 

8 

"  Much  colder." 

1 

56° 

(June.) 

2 

73° 

(Aug.) 

1 

"  Gradually  cooler." 

28 

"Gradually  cold." 
"  Gradually  cool." 

6 

58° 

(May.) 

1 

75° 

(July.) 

1 

2 

"  Gradually  colder." 

16 

60° 

(June.) 

2 

75° 

(June.) 

1 

"  Suddenly  cooler." 
" Suddenly  cool." 
"  Suddenly  cold." 
"  Suddenly  cold(sno'w 
after,  next  day)." 

11 

3 

60° 

(April.) 

2 

80° 

(Oct.) 

1 

34 

1 

60° 

(Aug.) 

2 

81° 

(June.) 

1 

i 

"  Suddenly  colder." 

8 
6 

62° 

(May.) 

1 

"  No  change." 

"  No  decided  change." 
"  No  great  change." 

3 

64° 

(May.) 

1 

3 

"  Not  much  change." 

1 

65° 

(June.) 

1 

"  No  sudden  change." 

1 

"  Warm." 

8 

65° 

(Sept.) 

1 

"  Intensely  hot." 

"  Suddenly  cool,  tem- 

1 

66° 

(Sept.) 

1 

perature  falling  sev- 

1 

eral  degrees  in  a  few 
minutes. " 

66° 

(July.) 

1 

Totals, 

565 

21 

11 

1,270:1,867 

117 


Table  No.  12. 

Reporled  Valuation  of  Property  Destroyed  by  Tornadoes.  The  values 
here  given  are  in  the  main  largely  underestimated,  owing  to  imperfection  of  re- 
ports, and  in  many  cases  failure  to  give  any  mention  of  the  loss.  It  is  estimated 
that  these  values  give,  on  the  average,  about  10  per  cent  of  the  actual  loss  sus- 
tained. 


Length 
of 

Tornado 
record  in 
years. 


63 
46 
205 
12 
12 
92 
52 
68 
44 
28 
77 
18 
27 
54 
78 
64 


Valuation  of 
property 
destroyed. 


$142,000 
535,000 
272,000 
540,000 
2,500 
600,000 
675,000 
787,000 
1,553,000 
520,000 
25,000 
120,000 
2,000 
20,000 
50,000 
226,400 


Minnesota, 

Mississippi 

Missouri, 

Nebraska, 

N.  Hampshire, 

New  Jersey, 

New  York, 

North  Carolina. 

Ohio, 

Pennsylvania, 

South  Carolina, 

Tennessee, 

Texas, 

Vermont, 

Virginia, 

Wisconsin, 


Length 
of 

Tornado 
record  in 
years. 


32 
64 
46 
16 
70 
65 
99 
61 
83 
76 
125 
79 
34 
58 
71 
43 


Table  No.  13. 

A  table  showing  the  period  of  observation  and  record  of  the  occurrence  of 
Tornadoes  for  each  State  from  which  they  have  been  reported.  States  arranged 
alphabetically. 


Alabama, 

Arkansas, 

Colorado, 

Connecticut, 

Dakota, 

Florida, 

(Jeorgia, 

Illinois, 

Indiana, 

Iowa, 

Kansas, 

Kentucky, 

Louisiana, 

Maine, 

Maryland, 

Massachusetts, 

Michigan, 


1823  to  1886 
1840  "  1886 


1877  ' 
1682  ' 
18T5  ' 
1875  ■ 
1795  ' 
1835  ' 
1818  ' 
1843  ' 
1859  ' 
1810  ' 
1869 
1860 
1833 
1809 
1823 


1886 
1886 
1886 
1886 
1886 
1886 
1886 
1886 
1886 
1886 
1886 
1886 
1886 
1886 
1886 


No.  of 
Years. 


63 
46 
10 
205 
12 
12 
92 
52 
68 
44 
28 
77 
18 
27 
54 
78 
64 


Minnesota, 

Mississippi, 

Missouri, 

Nebraska, 

N.  Hampshire, 

New  Jersey, 

New  York, 

North  Carolina, 

Ohio, 

Pennsylvania, 
South  Carolina, 
Tennessee, 
Texas, 
Vermont, 
Virginia, 
West  Virginia, 
Wisconsin, 


PERIOD. 


1855  to  1886 

32 

1823  ' 

'  1886 

64 

1814  ' 

'  1886 

46 

1871  ' 

'  1886 

16 

1807  ' 

'  1886 

70 

1822  ' 

'  1886 

65 

1787  ' 

'  1886 

99 

1826  * 

'  1886 

61 

1804  ' 

'  1886 

83 

1811  ' 

'  1886 

76 

1761  ' 

'  1886 

125 

1808  ' 

'  1886 

79 

1853  ' 

'  1886 

34 

1829  ' 

'  1886 

58 

1816  ' 

'  1886 

71 

1880  ' 

'  1886 

7 

1844  ' 

♦  1886 

43 

ii8 

Table  No  14. 


KELATivK  Frequency  of  Tornadoes,  by  months. 


No.  of 
Storms 

MONTHS. 

No.  of 
Storms 

g  Or-: 
III 

Total  No.  of 
Toriuuloos 
observed. 

January, 

22 

JULY, 

232 

FEBRUARY, 

89 

August, 

147 

MARCH, 

152 

September, 

114 

ArRH>, 

313 

OCTOBER, 

41 

MAY, 

339 

NOVEMBER, 

55 

June, 

285 

December, 

27 

51 

1,867 

Table  No.  15. 


A  table  showing  the  relative  frequency  of  Tornadoes  by  States  according  to 
the  area  of  each  in  square  miles,  and  to  the  length  of  record  of  observations  dur- 
ing a  period,  in  the  total,  of  205  years,  from  1682  to  1886,  inclusive. 

Relative  frequency  in  this  table  is  expressed  decimally  in  terms  of  the  unit  of 
value  for  each  State,  which  is  taken,  for  convenience  of  comparison,  at  10,000 
square  miles. 


h  of 

record 

rs. 

1  num- 
year 
State. 

o  ® 

2^ 

hof 

record 

irs. 

1  num- 
year. 
State. 

iiimiber 
vnv  for 
sq.  miles. 

STATES. 

fcJDO  O 

STATES. 

^  tj 

Aiea  in 
10,000 

mi 

O}  f-f 

m 

Area  in 
10,000 
mi 

Tornad 
in  5 

S  <y 
>  S  ^ 

<  iH 

Alabama, 

5.1 

63 

1.62 

0.32 

Minnesota, 

8.4 

32 

2.44 

0.29 

Arkansas, 

5.3 

46 

0.74 

0.14 

MississipiJi, 

4.7 

64 

0.76 

0.16 

Colorado, 

10.3 

10 

0.40 

0.04 

Missouri, 

6.5 

46 

3.39 

0.52 

Connecticut, 

0.5 

205 

0.06 

0.12 

Nebraska, 

7.6 

16 

3.25 

0.43 

Dakota, 

14.7 

12 

3.83 

0.26 

N.  Hampshire 

7.9 

70 

0.11 

0.01 

Florida, 

5.4 

12 

0.83 

0.15 

New  J  ersey, 

0.8 

65 

0.18 

0.22 

Georgia, 

5.8 

92 

1.39 

0.24 

New  York, 

4.7 

99 

0.68 

0.14 

Illinois, 

5.5 

52 

2.44 

0.44 

N.  Carolina, 

5.1 

61 

0.97 

0.19 

Indiana, 

3.4 

68 

1.23 

0.36 

Ohio, 

4.0 

83 

1.10 

0.27 

Iowa, 

5.5 

44 

2  67 

0.49 

Pennsylvania 

4.6 

76 

0.80 

0.17 

Kansas, 

8.1 

28 

5.46 

0.67 

S.  Carolina, 

3.4 

125 

0.46 

0.13 

Kentucky, 

4.0 

77 

0.34 

0.08 

Tennessee, 

4.6 

79 

0.39 

0.08 

Louisiana, 

4.1 

18 

1.05 

0.26 

Texas, 

26.2 

34 

2.14 

0.08 

Maine, 
Maryland, 

2.9 

27 

0.26 

0.09 

Vermont, 

0.9 

58 

0.06 

0.07 

1.1 

54 

0.30 

0.27 

Virginia, 

4.0 

71 

0.25 

0.06 

Massachus'tts 

0.8 

78 

0.28 

0.35 

W.  Virginia, 

2.4 

7 

0.28 

0.12 

Michigan, 

5.6 

64 

1.10 

0.20 

Wisconsin, 

5.4 

43 

1.37 

0.25 

119 


Table  No.  16. 


MONTHLY  TORNADO  FREQUENCY. 

TOTAL  NUMBER  OF  TORNADOES  FOR  EACH 

^ 

8TATE. 

Month,  by  States. 

Cases,  mon 
not  repon 

Total  No 
Tornado 
per  Stat 

1  Jan. 

Feb. 

March. 

April. 

May. 

1  June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

0 

Dec. 

Alabama, 

9 

13 

27 

21 

9 

9 

5 

9 

102 

Arkansas, 

2 

12 

9 

2 

3 

1 

4 

1 

34 

Colorado, 

2 

2 

4 

Connecticut, 

1 

2 

3 

3 

2 

1 

1 

13 

Dakota  Ty., 

2 

0 

2 

8 

14 

11 

4 

46 

Delaware, 

1 

1 

Dist.  of  Colnmbia, 

1 

1 

Florida, 

1 

1 

2 

3 

2 

1 

10 

Georgia, 

4 

27 

30 

30 

8 

"4 

7 

3 

2 

2 

'5 

6 

128 

Illinois, 

1 

1 

6 

15 

50 

19 

4 

5 

15 

1 

6 

1 

3 

127 

Indiana, 

2 

7 

6 

25 

13 

9 

7 

6 

3 

4 

1 

1 

84 

Indian  Ty., 

2 

3 

1 

6 

Iowa, 

2 

1 

31 

18 

37 

15 

3 

3 

6 

2 

118 

Kansas, 

4 

30 

45 

40 

18 

8 

7 

1 

153 

Kentucky, 

'3 

6 

3 

2 

3 

2 

2 

3 

26 

Louisiana, 

2 

1 

"7 

1 

1 

2 

19 

Maine, 

1 

4 

i 

1 

7 

Maryland, 

1 

1 

"i 

4 

6 

"i 

1 

16 

Massachusetts, 

3 

9 

5 

2 

3 

22 

Michigan, 

1 

11 

14 

8 

7 

5 

15 

4 

2 

4 

71 

Minnesota, 
Mississippi, 

16 

4 

15 

20 

17 

3 

1 

1 

1 

78 

2 

15 

19 

8 

1 

1 

1 

1 

49 

Missouri. 

4 

5 

32 

42 

29 

i3 

5 

'8 

2 

6 

4 

156 

Nebraska, 

8 

11 

18 

6 

2 

6 

1 

52 

New  Hampshire, 

1 

4 

1 

1 

1 

8 

New  Jersey, 

1 

'i 

2 

3 

2 

2 

1 

12 

New  York, 

1 

2 

5 

8 

28 

9 

7 

1 

1 

5 

67 

North  Carolina, 

8 

14 

ii 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

1 

3 

1 

59 

Ohio, 

'2 

6 

6 

6 

32 

15 

9 

6 

4 

2 

1 

1 

2 

92 

Pennsylvania, 

1 

3 

2 

13 

12 

9 

13 

4 

1 

1 

2 

61 

Khode  Island, 

1 

1 

South  Carolina, 

13 

11 

12 

6 

1 

4 

2 

4 

1 

1 

2 

57 

Tennessee, 

1 

3 

3 

10 

4 

3 

1 

3 

1 

1 

1 

31 

Texas, 

2 

4 

22 

8 

26 

4 

5 

2 

73 

Vermont, 

1 

2 

1 

4 

Virginia, 

2 

1 

'3 

5 

2 

5 

18 

West  Virginia, 

"i 

1 

2 

Wisconsin, 

1 

2 

'7 

8 

19 

13 

5 

2 

1 

1 

59 

Totals, 

22 

89 

152 

313 

339 

285 

232 

147 

114 

41 

55 

27 

51 

1,867 

I20 


Table  No.  17. 


ClT  ATT 

Monthly  frequency  expressed  in  percent- 
age OF  TOTAL  Number  of  Tornadoes 

IN  EACH  STATE. 

Month  of 
greatest  fre- 
quency, 
per  cent. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

March. 

April. 

May. 

June. 

bb 

< 

Sept. 

Oct. 

> 
o 

Dec.  1 

Alabama, 

10 

14 

29 

23 

10 

10 

Marcli. 

Arkansas, 

6 

36 

27 

6 

9 

3 

12 

April. 

Colorado, 

50 

50 

May  Jun 

Connecticut, 

8 

17 

25 

25 

17 

8 

July! 

Dakota  Ter., 

4 

11 

4 

18 

30 

24 

9 

July. 

Delaware, 

100 

August. 

Dist.  of  Columbia, 

100 

August. 

Florida, 

10 

10 

2l) 

30 

20 

10 

Sept. 

Georgia, 

3 

22 

25 

25 

7 

3 

6 

2 

2 

2 

"4 

Men,  Apr. 

Illinois, 

1 

1 

5 

12 

40 

15 

3 

4 

12 

1 

5 

1 

May. 

Indiana, 

2 

8 

7 

30 

16 

11 

8 

7 

4 

5 

1 

May. 

Indian  Ter., 

33 

50 

17 

May. 

Iowa, 

2 

1 

26 

15 

3i 

id 

3 

3 

5 

2 

June. 

Xansas, 

3 

20 

29 

26 

12 

5 

5 

1 

May. 

Kentucky, 

is 

26 

13 

9 

13 

9 

9 

9 

March. 

Louisiana, 

11 

5 

37 

5 

5 

ii 

26 

April. 

Maine, 

14 

57 

14 

14 

July. 

Maryland, 

7 

7 

"7 

27 

40 

"7 

7 

August. 

Massachusetts, 

16 

47 

26 

11 

July. 

Michigan, 

2 

16 

21 

12 

10 

8 

22 

6 

3 

May. 

Minnesota, 

21 

5 

20 

26 

22 

4 

1 

1 

July. 

Mississippi, 

4 

31 

38 

17 

2 

2 

2 

April. 

Missouri, 

3 

3 

21 

28 

19 

9 

3 

5 

1 

4 

4 

May. 

Nebraska, 

15 

21 

35 

12 

4 

12 

2 

June. 

New  Hampshire, 

12 

50 

12 

12 

12 

July. 

New  Jersey, 

8 

"8 

17 

25 

17 

17 

"8 

August. 

New  York, 

2 

3 

"8 

13 

45 

14 

11 

2 

2 

July. 

North  Carolina, 

14 

24 

ii) 

5 

5 

5 

7 

7 

7 

2 

5 

March. 

Ohio, 

2 

7 

7 

7 

36 

17 

10 

7 

4 

2 

1 

1 

May. 

Pennsylvania, 

2 

5 

3 

22 

20 

15 

22 

7 

2 

2 

May,  Aug. 

Bhode  Island, 

100 

August. 

Soutli  Carolina, 

i^4 

20 

22 

11 

2 

7 

4 

7 

2 

2 

February 

Tennessee, 

3 

10 

10 

33 

13 

10 

3 

10 

3 

3 

April. 

Texas, 

8 

6 

30 

11 

36 

6 

7 

3 

June. 

Vermont, 

25 

50 

25 

July. 

Virginia, 

11 

6 

17 

28 

11 

28 

July,  Sep. 

West  \  irginia, 

50 

50 

Apl,June. 

Wisconsin, 

2 

3 

12 

14 

33 

22 

9 

3 

2 

July. 

121 


Table  No.  18. 


Kelative  Frequency  of  toiinadoes. 
Months— Days. 


1-5 

Feb. 

March  J 

April. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Pi 

<V 

m 

Oct. 

o 

o 

0) 

A 

1st. 

1 

1 

15 

10 

5 

9 

6 

2 

2 

2(1. 

1 

6 

2 

7 

10 

2 

3d. 

'i 

5 

1 

7 

11 

17 

3 

1 

4tli. 

2 

5 

4 

2 

3 

14 

2 

1 

5 

5tli. 

1 

6 

6 

10 

10 

7 

1 

5 

6th. 

1 

11 

16 

9 

2 

3 

1 

14 

1 

7th. 

1 

6 

3 

7 

6 

1 

1 

1 

8th. 

2 

2  . 

3 

11 

7 

10 

3 

6 

6 

5 

'i 

9th. 

2 

4 

1 

13 

8 

7 

5 

9 

2 

1 

1 

10th. 

1 

7 

2 

18 

11 

9 

4 

3 

1 

1 

2 

11th. 

8 

2 

14 

2 

6 

21 

10 

3 

4 

4 

2 

12tli. 

1 

4 

3 

7 

37 

28 

5 

2 

11 

1 

1 

2 

13th'. 

2 

4 

18 

7 

17 

5 

1 

14th. 

2 

62 

32 

17 

3 

6 

1 

2 

6 

-- 

15th 

1 

3 

6 

5 

4 

8 

15 

1 

4 

16th! 

3 

8 

6 

10 

15 

4 

21 

1 

"i 

17th. 

1 

2 

6 

9 

1 

2 

2 

"i 

18th. 

2 

4 

38 

31 

9 

5 

3 

3 

2 

19th! 

51 

1 

6 

3 

20 

4 

2 

2 

20th. 

25 

6 

9 

9 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

21st 

'i 

1 

9 

2 

13 

8 

11 

1 

"i 

2  2d.' 

5 

22 

0 

2 

2 

4 

23d. 

2 

2 

12 

8 

3 

7 

2 

1 

1 

24th. 

1 

8 

9 

2 

7 

2 

3 

6 

"3 

25th. 

27 

13 

7 

7 

6 

6 

1 

"i 

4 

2 

26th. 

"i 

3 

7 

5 

3 

9 

2 

4 

2 

27th. 

6 

12 

8 

12 

3 

3 

4 

1 

1 

28th. 

1 

5 

7 

6 

4 

7 

3 

3 

"i 

2 

29th. 

7 

9 

7 

6 

4 

4 

16 

2 

'i 

30th. 

1 

5 

26 

8 

10 

2 

2 

2 

"i 

31st. 

2 

9 

4 

2 

No.  of 

Days. 

8 

18 

27 

30 

31 

30 

31 

30 

26 

20 

17 

13 

No.  of 

cases, 

days 
not 

recorded. 

4 

3 

6 

12 

13 

18 

8 

3 

3 

3 

6 

1 

No.  of 

Tornadoes 

per 

month. 

22 

89 

152 

313 

339 

285 

232 

147 

114 

41 

55 

27 

Number  of  cases  month  not  recorded,  51. 
Total  Number  of  Tornadoes  observed,  1,867. 


122 


TABLE  No.  19. 


CONSIDERATION  OF  STATES  liY  QUARTERS. 


N.E.  Quarter 

S.  E.  Quarter 

S.W.  Quarter 

N.W.  Quart'r 

^1  . 

STATE. 

Number  of 
Years  of 
Tornado  Recoi 

Total  Nurabe 
of  Tornadoes 

1  Total  Number  i 
of  Tornadoes. 

1  Total  Number  i 
of  Tornadoes. 

Total  Number  i 
of  Tornadoes.  | 

1  Total  Nu 
of  Torn  a 

Month 
greatest 
quenc 

Month 
greatest 
quenc 

Month 
greatest 
quenc 

Month 
greatest 
quenc; 

Alabama. 

bo 

102 

57 

April. 

8 

March. 

8 

Mh.Nov. 

29 

March. 

Aikaiisas. 

46 

34 

9 

4 

M^arch, 

5 

April. 

15 

Apiil. 

Colorado. 

10 

4 

1 

May. 

3 

June. 

Conn. 

205 

13 

2 

Jul.,  Sep. 

6 

Jun.,  Ag. 

5 

May,  Jul. 
Ag.,  Sep. 

Dakota. 

46 

12 

August. 

27 

July. 

3 

June. 

2 

Maich. 

Delaware. 

1 

1 

1 

Aug. 

D.Columbia. 

72 

1 

Florida. 

12 

10 

5 

Sept. 

1 

July. 

4 

Ap.,May 

Till 

Georgia. 

92 

128 

33 

Feb. 

10 

March. 

19 

April. 

65 

April. 

Illinois. 

52 

127 

30 

May 

13 

Sept. 

55 

May. 

29 

May. 

Indiana. 

68 

84 

28 

28 

22 

Aug. 

11 

May. 

Indian  Ty. 

12 

6 

1 

May. 
May. 

3 

May! 

2 

April. 

Iowa. 

44 

118 

20 

34 

June. 

34 

April. 

30 

June. 

Kansas. 

Za 

153 

87 

May. 

39 

June. 

1  o 
iz 

April. 

15 

May. 

Kentucky. 

77 

26 

8 

Mh.,  Jul. 

7 

March. 

7 

Dec. 

4 

Fb.,May. 
Ag.  Nov. 

Louisiana. 

18 

19 

2 

Oc.,Nov. 

8 

April. 

1 

Oct. 

8 

Ap.,  Nov 

Maine. 

27 

7 

2 

May,  Jul. 

5 

July. 

Maryland. 

54 

16 

5 

August. 

1 

Aug. 

Q 

Fb.,  Ag., 
Sept. 

7 

July. 

Mass. 

78 

22 

7 

August. 

2 

Jul.,  Ag. 

9 

July. 

4 

July. 

Micliigan. 

64 

71 

5 

Ap.,  Jun, 
Sept. 

34 

April. 

29 

May. 

4 

Sep.,  Oct. 

Minnesota. 

32 

78 

2 

Ap.,May 

45 

Jun.,  Ag. 

22 

Jnly. 

9 

Aug. 
April. 

Mississippi. 

64 

49 

20 

March. 

8 

April. 

17 

April. 

6 

Missouri. 

63 

156 

36 

May. 

21 

April. 

31 

April. 

72 

My.,  Jun 

Nebraska. 

16 

52 

11 

Sept. 

39 

June. 

2 

My.,  Jun. 

N.  II  amp. 

70 

8 

1 

Oct. 

7 

July. 

New  Jersey. 

65 

12 

6 

Oct. 

1 

Aug. 

4 

Jul.,  Ag., 
Sep., Nov 

1 

April. 

New  York. 

99 

67 

7 

August. 

19 

July. 

32 

July. 

9 

July. 

N.  Carolina. 

61 

59 

10 

August. 

14 

Feb.,Mh. 
May. 

22 

March. 

10 

April. 

Ohio. 

83 

92 

21 

June. 

11 

29 

May. 

31 

May. 

Penn. 

76 

61 

6 

Oct. 

22 

Aug. 

24 

May. 

9 

Jun., Jul. 

Khode  Is, 

48 

1 

1 

Aug. 

S.  Carolina. 

125 

57 

8 

March. 

8 

April. 

15 

Fb.,  Apr. 

25 

March. 

Tennessee. 

79 

31 

6 

Ap.,  Jun. 

3 

Fb.,  Ap., 
Nov. 

11 

April. 

13 

April. 

Texas. 

34 

73 

51 

June. 

14 

June. 

4 

April, 

3 

April. 

Vermont. 

58 

4 

3 

Ma.,  Jul., 
Aug. 

1 

July. 

Virginia. 

71 

18 

5 

Sept. 

9 

July. 

3 

June. 

1 

.lune. 

W.  Virginia. 

7 

2 

1 

June. 

1 

April. 

Wisconsin. 

43 

59 

4 

July. 

30 

July. 

21 

Aug. 

5 

July. 

Totals 

2,129 

1,867 

504 

470 

463 

430 

f 


123 


NOTE.— In  preparing  table  19  (see  opposite  page),  the  data  for  each  State  was 
carefully  charted  on  a  large  county  map.  The  State  was  then  divided  into  foar 
approximately  equal  portions,  making  four  quarters  denominated  N.  E.,  S.  E., 
S.  W.,  and  N.  W.  quarters.  The  data  for  each  was  considered  by  itself  in  de- 
termining the  peculiar  value  of  that  section,  and  afterwards  tlie  four  sections  of 
each  State  were  tabulated  and  brought  together  in  convenient  form  for  compara- 
tive study,  as  indicated  on  page  122. 


Table  No.  20. 


Month. 


Total  number 
of  Tornadoes 
per  State. 


-I- 

o  f2  fl 


January.. 


22 


2.75 


Alabama  9 

Georgia  4 

Illinois  1 

Mississippi  1 

Ohio  2 
Pennsylvania  1 

Tennessee  1 

Texas  2 


1.12 
.50 
.12 
.12 
.25 
.12 
.12 
.25 


1885 


1866 
1869 
1870 
1883 


FEBliUAKY..< 


17 


89 


5.23 


Alabama 
Georgia 
Illinois 
Indiana 
Iowa 
Kentucky 
Louisiana 
Maryland 
Michigan 
Mississippi 
Missouri 
New  York 
No.  Carolina  8 
Ohio  6 
So.  Carolina  13 
Tennessee  3 


1.59 
.06 
.12 
.12 
.18 
.12 
.06 
.06 
.12 
.24 
.06 
.47 
.35 
.76 
.18 


1805 
1820 
1854 
1867 
1868 
1871 
1882 
1883 


March  . 


25 


152 


6.04 


Alabama 
Arkansas 
Dakota 
Georgia 
Illinois 
Indiana 
Iowa 
Kansas 
Kentucky 
Louisiana 
Mississippi  15 
Missouri  5 
New  York  2 
No.  Carolina  14 
Ohio  6 
Pennsylvania  3 
So.  Carolina  11 
Tennessee  3 
Texas  4 
Virginia  2 
Wisconsin  1 


1.08 
.08 
.08 

1.20 
.24 
.28 
.04 
.16 
.24 
.04 
.60 
.20 
.08 
.56 
.24 
.12 
.44 
.12 
.16 
.08 
.04 


1884 


1849 

185 

1855 

1856 

1857 

1861 

1863 

1865 

1871 

1872 

1874 


124 

Table  No.  20 — Continued. 


Month. 


^  .'  ^  ^  ?  6  ^ 
I— I  ■y  I— 1  c     —  s 


Total  nnmber 
of  Tornadoes 
per  State. 


^  ?  o  ® 


-  E  S 


o  P  c 
b  S  £ 

55  p 


Begion  of 
Maximum 
Frequeucy. 


April. 


34  313  9.21 


Alabama  21 
Arkansas  12 
Dakota  5 
Florida  1 
Georgia  30 
Illinois  15 
Indiana  6 
Indian  Ter.  2 
Iowa  31 
Kansas  30 
Louisiana  7 
Michigan  11 
Minnesota  16 
Mississippi  19 
Missouri  32 
Nebraska 
JSTew  Jersey  1 
No.  Carolina  11 
Obio 
Pennsylvania  2 
So.  Carolina  12 
Tennessee  10 
Texas  22 
Wesi  Virginia  1 
Wisconsin  2 


.62 
.35 
.15 
.03 
.88 
.44 
.18 
.06 
.91 
.88 
.21 
.32 
.47 
.56 
.94 
.24 
.03 
.32 
.18 
.06 
.35 
.29 
.65 
.03 
.06 


1886 


1804 
1819 
1823 
1827 
1829 
1830 
1832 
1833 
1834 
1837 
1843 
1852 
1860 
1865 
1866 
1873 
1874 


Iowa 
and 
Missouri. 


May 


35  339 


9.40 


Alabama 
Arkansas 

Colorado  2 

Connecticut  1 

Dakota  2 

Florida  1 

Georgia  8 

Indian  Ter.  1 

Illinois  50 

Indiana  25 

Indian  Ter.  3 

Iowa  18 

Kansas  45 

Kentucky  3 

Louisiana  1 

Maine  1 

Maryland  1 

Michigan  14 

Minnesota  4 

Mississippi  8 

Missouri  42 

Nebraska  11 
New  Hamp.  1 

New  York  5 
No.  Carolina  3 

Ohio  32 

Penn.  13 
So.  Carolina  6 

Tennessee  4 

Texas  8 

Vermont  1 

Virginia  1 

Wisconsin  7 


.26 
.26 
.06 
.03 
.06 
.03 
.23 
.03 

1.43 
.71 
.11 
.51 

1.29 
.09 
.03 
.03 
.03 
.40 
.11 
.23 

1.20 
.31 
.03 
.14 
.09 
.91 
.37 
.17 
.11 
.23 
.03 
.03 
.20 


1886 


1761 
1808 
1809 
1823 
1831 
1832 
1834 
1835 
1837 
1838 
1839 
1840 
1854 
1855 
1860 
1867 
1870 


125 

Table  No.  20. — Continued. 


Month. 


®  C  <Ii 
<J  as  p 

^  cdLj 


Total  iinmber 
of  Toi'iia  loes 
per  State. 


Region  of 
Maxmnim 
Frequency. 


36 


285 


-.91 


July  . 


32 


232 


7.24 


Arkansas 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Dakota 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Maryland 

Mass. 

Micliigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

New  Jersey 

New  York 

No.  Carolina 

Ohio 

Penn. 

So.  Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Virginia 

W.  Virginia 

Wisconsin 


Arkansas 

Connecticut 

Dakota 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Mass. 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

New  Ham  p. 

New  Jersey 

is'ew  ^  ork 

No.  Carolina 

Ohio 

Penn. 

So.  Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Wisconsin 


.06 
.06 
.06 
.22 
.11 
.72 
.36 
1.03 
1.11 
.06 
.03 
.08 
.22 
.42 
.03 
.81 
.50 
.03 
.22 
.08 
.42 
.33 
.03 
.08 
.72 
.08 
.03 
.22 


.09 
.09 
.44 
.06 
.22 
.12 
.28 
.47 
.56 
.12 
.03 
.12 
12 
.28 
.22 
.62 
.41 
.19 
.12 
.06 
.88 
.09 
.28 
.28 
.12 
.03 
.12 
.06 
.16 
.59 


1886 


1682 
1794 
1829 
1840 
1841 
1843 
1845 
1854 
1855 
1864 
1865 
1867 
1869 
1870 
1872 
1873 


Kansas. 


1884 


1814 
1816 
1831 
1834 
1845 
1850 
1854 
1861 
1867 
1870 


New  York. 


126 


Table  No.  20. — Continued. 


Montli. 


Total  number 
of  Tornadoes 
per  State. 


o  5  n 

OJ  c  c? 


Region  of 
Maximum 
Frequency. 


147 


4.19 


3 
11 
1 
1 

5 
7 
1 
3 
8 
2 
1 
6 
5 
5 
17 
1 
5 
2 
1 
3 
9 
4 
6 
13 

Rhode  Island  1 
So.  Carolina  2 
Tennessee 
Texas 
Vermont 
Virginia 
Wisconsin 


Connecticut 
Dakota 
Delaware 
Dist.  Col. 
Illinois 
Indiana 
Indian  Ter. 
Iowa 
Kansas 
Kentucky 
Maine 
Maryland 
Mass, 
Michigan 
Minnesota 
Mississippi 
Missouri 
ISTebraska 
New  Hamp. 
New  Jersey 
New  York 
No,  Carolina 
Ohio 
Penn. 


September. 


20  114 


5,71 


Connecticut 

Dakota 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Maryland 

Mass. 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

New  Hamp. 

New  Jersey 

New  York 

No.  Carolina 

Ohio 

Penn, 

So,  Carolina 

Virginia 

Wisconsin 


.09 
.31 
.03 
.03 
.14 
.20 
.03 
.09 
.23 
.06 
.03 
.17 
.14 
.14 
.49 
.03 
.14 
.06 
.03 
.09 
.26 
.11 
.17 
.37 
.03 
.06 
.09 
.14 
.03 
.06 
.37 


.10 
.20 
.15 
.15 
.75 
.30 
.15 
.35 
.05 
.10 
.75 
.15 
.40 
.30 
.05 
.10 
.35 
.20 
.20 
.20 
.20 
.25 
.25 


1787 
1818 
1822 
1823 
1827 
1834 
1838 
1843 
1844 
1852 
1858 
1859 
1860 
1862 
1870 
1879 


1886 


Minnesota 


1811 
1822 
1845 
1848 
1857 
1867 
1872 
1873 
1876 


Illinois 
and 
Michigan. 


Table  No.  20.  —Continued. 


Month. 


©  6  <3-' 


Total  number 
of  Tornadoes 
per  State. 


Region  of 
Maximum 
Frequency. 


OCTOBER. . . 


20 


41 


Arkansas 

Connecticut 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Missouii 

Nebraska 

New  Hamp. 

New  Jersey 

New  York 

No.  ('arolina 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania  1 
Wisconsin  2 


.05 
.05 
.10 
.10 
.05 
.15 
.30 
.10 
.05 
.05 
.20 
.05 
.10 
.05 
.05 
.10 
.05 
.20 
.10 
.05 
.10 


1883 


1797 
1824 
1826 
1833 
1834 
1835 
1837 
1844 
18i7 
1854 
1872 
1880 


Iowa. 


NOVEMBER. 


3.96 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

New  Jersey 

New  Yoi  k 

No.  Carolina 

Ohio 

So.  Carolina 
Tennessee 
Texas 
Wisconsin 


.64 
.29 
.07 
.14 
.43 
.29 
.14 
.07 
.14 
.36 
.14 
.07 
.07 
.43 
.07 
.07 
.07 
.07 
.07 
.07 
.14 
.07 


1885 


18' 1 
1870 
1870 
1875 
1876 
1882 
1884 


AlaDaraa. 


December.. 


2. 70 


Alabama  5 
Georgia  5 
Illinois  1 
Indiana  1 
Kentucky  1 
Missouri  6 
Nevada  1 
No.  Carolina  3 
Oii^o  1 
Pennsylvania  1 
So.  Carolina  1 
Tennessee  1 


.50 
.50 
.10 
.10 
.10 
.60 
.10 
.30 
.10 
.10 
.10 
.10 


1884 


1864 
1870 
1878 
1883 


Missouri. 


128 


Table  No.  21 


«3 

o 

•\oN.T  1  ^o^ooiVd                              1  A  1 

ox'r-ro       1  1 

1  II 

1  1 

CONSIDERED  ] 

•!jd8S  1                                           1  1 

1                 1  <N  Td5 

rHr-l 

•Snv  1                                           1  1 

1        1  oToo  6 

iHCM 

•vciur  1 

co'io't-^  1 

1  Oi  ©"rH 

1  coco 

O 

•9nn_c 

co'l-  1 

1 

1 

r-lrH 

'A 
W 
« 

O  GO  1 

oi 

CCUl 

'ludy 

r-l  <N  1:0  C<1  CO  (M  co'ic  oi  1 
iH  i-l  (N  (N     (M  1 

U3CMC0'"'<tC0"iO~Qd  1 
rHrHrHrHCqCM 

o 

•qojBM 

rjTco't^  0  tH  (M  iC  CO'co'o'iM  CO  rji  IC  l>  X  1 
>-l  1-1  iH  iH  r-l  rH  CM  (M  (N  C<l  (N 

oi  1 

(M  j 

o 

•qaa 

(M'"co''»crGO~arTir:o'~a6  1 

rH  iH  r-l  r-l  tH  (M  (M  CM  j 

tH 

DA' 

•u-er 

rHCOOi  1 
rHr-l(M  1 

Hour  of 
greatest 
frequency. 

6  to  7  p.m. 

7  to  8  p.  m. 
11  p.m.  to 
midnight. 

3  to  4  p.m. 

1  to  2  p.m. 

5  to  6  p.m. 

6  to  7  p.m. 

7  to  8  p.m. 

2  to  3  p.m. 

6  to  7  p.m. 

Montli 
of  great- 
est fre. 
quency. 

March. 

April. 

May, 
June. 

July, 
August. 

Total 
No  of 
Torna- 
does. 

CO 

CO 

CO 
rH 

STATE. 

ALABAMA, 

ARIZONA, 

CO 

cc 

t 

< 

COLORADO, 

CONNECTICUT, 

I 


29 


Table  No.  21. — Continued. 


DATES  OF  OCCURRENCE,  CONSIDERED  BY  MONTHS. 

•oaa 

•aon: 

•JDO 

OiO 

,  . 

■SuY 

CO 

•X[nr 

•aun£ 

CO 

•qo^ 

•u^r 

Hour  of 
greatest 
frequency. 

6  to  7  p.m. 

|4  to  5  p.m.l 

1  to  2  p.m. 
3  to  4  p.m. 

Month 
of  great- 
est fre- 
quency. 

t 

1 

August. 

^  ■ 

Marcli, 
April. 

i 

III 

s 

i 

STATE. 

Dakota, 

Delaware, 

I 

1 

; 

: 

Georgia, 

I30 


Table  No.  21. —Continued. 


X 

06  j 

cc5  1 
^  1 

y< 
0 

•AOK  1 

tH  1 

cxT^'co  1 

"1»0  1 

06  1 

-rfkOOi  1 

w 

iHiH(M(M 

Co'cOfM*  1 
rH(M  1 

CONSIDEl 

•SnY  1 

THr-((MC<l  1 

oTco  1 

iH  1 

THC^'rjrcOCOt^^  1 

(M(M<M  1 

;^ 
0 

•ounr 

(M  OO'Tit                   t>  00  oTrH  CO  05  1 
tH  r-l  iH  iH  iH  (M  (M  <^^ 

rH  rH  tH  rH  ?q  (M  CO  | 

w 

ZDCOOC^  of r^ToO  Oi  0"(N  MlO  CO  t>  oTo'rH  1 
tH  iH  iH  tH  i-j  r-t  (N  C<1  !N  (N  <M  (M  O^J  :0  CO 

x'^o^od 

P3 

rr! 

r-i      fH  iH  !M  C^J 

ecu] 

•ITjdY 

"^(£01  1 

tHiHiHC<l(M  1 

T-lr-ICO  1 

FES  OF  0 

cido"odo»o  1 

iHrHCMCa  1 

rlTdiO 

(M 

« 

•u^r 

Hour  of 

greatest 
frequency. 

4  to  5  p.m. 

5  to  6  p.m. 

Montli 
of  great- 
est fre- 
quency. 

May. 

Maj 

Ma;; 

-Jo  3  m 

Tot£ 
No.  < 
Ton 

doef 

t> 

(M 

iH 

rJH 

00 

CD 

STATE. 

ILLINOIS, 

INDIANA, 

INDIAN  TERRITORY, 

Table  No.  21. — Continued. 


Datks  of  Occurrence,  Considered  hy  Months. 

'09a 

AOK 

•JOG 

d  Tji I> GO"t> GO'CO^O 

•qa^^ 

i 

i 

3 

CO 

Month 
of  fifreat- 

est  f  re 
quency. 

i 

1-5 

i 

Total 
No.  of 
Torna- 
does. 

s 

STATE. 

0 

M 

KANSAS, 

132 


Table  No.  21. — Continued. 


•oea 

r-iOi 

BY  MONl 

co"q6 

iH(M 

•AOM 

rH<M 

06 

iH 

CD 

RED 

•:jdas 

CO 

od'co'o"c<rco 

r-l(MOq(M 

DONSIDE] 

•Snv 

oV 

CO 
iH 

co"© 

(NCO 

6 

CiCO 

C0r)<iO 

!M0iCDf-iO 

OOrHjq'NCO 

•ounr 

r-l 

06 

tHrHCO 

r-ir-i 

c4 

tH 

rH 

c<i 

CO  X  0  rj^  10  CO  10 1- rH 
fH  tH  iH  tH  <M  (M  CO 

CCURI 

•IijdY 

1  (M''t>oD"arcood  1        1  1 
1           "^"^  1        1  1 

kOCOGO'iC 
rHiH  (M 

TES  OF  0 

06 

•qa^ 

rH 

i> 

;^  # 

< 
ft 

Honr  of 

greatest 
equency. 

to  4  p.m. 

to  5  p.m. 

to  5  p.m. 

to  6  p.m. 
to  7  p.m. 

to  5  p.m. 

to  6  p.m. 

CO 

10  CD 

»n 

f  great- 
est fre- 
uency. 

^* 

0 

April. 

July. 

August. 

July. 

May. 

Total 
No.  of 
Torna- 
does. 

CD 

0^ 
rH 

t> 

CD 
r-( 

(M 
(M 

rH 

cc 
H 

STATE, 

Kentucky, 

LOUISIANA, 

Maine, 

MARYLAND, 

Massachuse^ 

Michigan, 

133 


Table  No.  21. — Continued. 


•SH. 

I  ONI 

•AOJsE 

— >  .  

BY 

Q 

— ~  

COCOTjrco"oi 

DONSIDEl 

'Sw^ 

•Ain£ 

rHCCt>C0rHiOCDr-IQ0 

(MCOXOfNCOCDOQO 
r-(  rH  iH  rH  (N 

CE,  ( 

•aunr 

iH  rH  iH  iH  CM  (M  CO 

CO 

iHC^COiCXINCOTjHiOCDt^XOiHO 
iHrHr-lr-lrHr-trHCqOaCO 

PS 
PS 

0 
0 

(MCO 

IH1H 

U50005i-iCOI>COOi©Tl<iX>XOiOTH 
iH'-trHr-lrHC^(MC<>C<l(MCOCO 

•ITjdY 

l-tTH 

iH  r-(  rH  Cq      C5  (M  CO 

iHQ0(MTl<00CO^COOi 
iH  iH  tH  (M  !N  <N 

lES  OF  0 

OrH(NC0t>G0Ct>Q0 

rHiH(M(MCO 

oi 

iH 

r-Tco't^ 

< 
P 

iH 

Hour  of 

greatest 
frequency. 

3  to  4  p.m. 

1  to  2  p.m. 

5  to  6  p.m. 

Month 

of  great- 
est fre- 
quency. 

July. 

April. 

May. 

Tota 

QO 
l> 

a 

CD 
rH 

STATE. 

MINNESOTA, 

MISSISSIPPI, 

i 

MISSOURI, 

134 


Table  No.  21. — Continued. 


•09a 

I 

•AON 

rH 

i 

'*das 

05 

'Sny 

CO 

•Ainr 

2§ 

•auui' 

r^  TjH  o'Cvi  ^  sO  0  of  ^  g 

oi 

T-H 

rHrHr-l(M 

1 
0 

'lijdY 

(M* 

i 

•WS£ 

1 

4  to  5  p.m. 

s 

n 

3  to  4  p.m. 
5  to  6  p.m. 

Month 
of  great- 
est fre- 
quency. 

1 

t 

} 

1-5 

Total 
No.  of 
Torna- 
does, 

g 

CO 

STATE. 

Nebraska, 

NEW  Hampshire, 

NEW  Jersey, 

i 

135 


Table  No.  21.— Continued. 


Dates  of  Occurrence,  Considered  by  Months. 

6 

CD 

■Aojsr  1  ^ 

+''0  1 

-To 

•Idas  ^^'^ 

06 

I— I  (M 

iHrHrHCO 

d 

CO 

rHr-i:0 

r-lr-l(M 

•9unr  ^'i^ 

i-H  IH  r-l  tH  r-(      (M  (M 

coiocot-iHcct-oD'-'ao 

rH  iH  1-1 T-1  (M  !M  CO 

r-l(N 

cod 

tH  ^ 

d"(M* 

•qa^ 

i-ti-lfHi-t 

CO 

d 

Hour  of 

greatest 
frequency. 

S 
ft 

0 

4  to  5  p.m. 

5  to  6  p.m. 

Vlonth 
:  great- 
st  fre- 
uency. 

March. 

May, 
ugust. 

August. 

Total 
No.  of 
Torna- 
does. 

a 

!N 

tH 

CO 

STATE. 

NORTH  CAROLINA, 

OHIO, 

y, 

3 

CC 

W 
Q 
0 

13^ 


Table  No.  21. — Continued. 


\ 

<N 
<M 

d 

tH 

•AOM 

l> 

d 

tod 

•:^das 

•Snv 

•jCinr 

•9nnf 

CO 

d 

•lijdv 

ci 

d 

11 

3  to  4  p.m. 

1  to  2  p.m. 
7  to  8  p.m. 

4  to  5  p.m. 

Month 
of  great- 
est fre. 
quency. 

i 

1 

1 

t 

Total 
No.  of 
Torna- 

does. 

s 

STATE. 

\ 

i 

Tennessee, 

Texas, 

VERMONT, 

137 


Table  No.  21. — Continued. 


02 

a 

[ONT 

•AOJsI 

S3 

06 

CE,  CONSIDERED  : 

(M* 
rH 

did 

<MCCr-ICOO»H(MOO 
iHr-((N(N(M(M 

ccoo"coV 

r-lTH(MOq 

CO  10 1- X  ©  CO  (M  CO 0  CI  0  »H 
iHrH(M(M(M<N<NCOCO 

•aunr 

CO 
iH 

CCURREN 

»H(N(NCO 

rH 

CO 
iH 

FES  OF  0 

iH 

d 

< 
ft 

'we£ 

Hour  of 
greatest 
frequency. 

4  to  5  p.m. 

Month 

of  great- 
est f  re- 
quency. 

July. 

Apl,  Jun. 

July. 

0  0  s  0 

00 

iH 

05 

\o 

STATE. 

VIRGINIA, 

WEST  Virginia, 

WISCONSIN, 

138 


Table  No.  22. 


Table  showing  the  Relation  of  the  Occurrence  of  Tornadoes  to  the 
Acreage  of  Forests  and  Cultivated  Lands,  «y  States. 


o  ^ 


c3  g  o  §  r 

O)  ^-rS  O  CD  2^ 


Alabama, 

Arkansas, 

Colorarlo, 

Connecticut, 

Dakota  Territory, 

Delaware, 

Florida, 

Georgia, 

Illinois, 

Indiana, 

Iowa, 

Kansas, 

Kentucky, 

Louisiana, 

Maine, 

Maryland, 

Massachusetts, 

Michigan, 

Minnesota, 

Mississippi, 

Missouii, 

Nebraska, 

New  Hampshire, 

New  Jersey, 

New  York, 

Noi  th  Carolina, 

Ohio, 

Pennsylvania, 
Rhode  Island, 
South  Carolina, 
Tennessee, 
Texas, 
Vermont, 
Virginia, 
West  Virginia, 
Wisconsin, 


1823  to  1886 
1840  to  1886 
1877  to  1886 
1682  to  1886 
1875  to  1886 
1885  to  1886 
1875  to  1886 
1795  to  1886 
1835  to  1886 
1818  to  1886 

1837  to  1886 

1859  to  1886 
1848  to  1886 
1869  to  1886 

1860  to  1886 
1833  to  1886 

1821  to  1886 
1823  to  1886 
1855  to  1886 
1823  to  1886 
1814  to  1886 
1871  to  1886 

1807  to  1886 

1822  to  1886 
1787  to  1886 
1826  to  1886 
1804  to  1886 
1811  to  1886 

1838  to  1886 
1761  to  1886 

1808  to  1886 
1853  to  1886 
1829  to  1886 
1816  to  1886 
1838  to  1886 
1843  to  1886 


102 
34 
4 
13 
46 
1 
10 
128 
127 
84 
118 
153 
26 
19 
7 
16 
22 
71 
78 
49 
156 
52 
8 
12 
67 
59 
92 
61 
1 
57 
31 
73 
4 
18 
2 
59 


•51,540 
53,045 
103.645 

4,845 
147,700 

1,960 
54,240 
58,980 
56,000 
35,901 
55,475 
81,700 
40,000 
45,420 
29,895 
11,124 

8,040 
57,524 
72.205 
46;340 
68,735 
76,185 

9,005 

7,455 
47,620 
48,580 
40,760 
44,985 

1,085 
30,170 
41,750 
262,290 

9,135 
40,150 
24,645 
54,450 


10,430,727 
7,861,409 
44,117 
646,673 
80,264 
279,099 
2,186,601 
15,269,225 
4,935,575 
5,935,308 
2,755,290 
991,187 
10,106,072 
4,557,332 
2,682,296 
1,634,019 
1,004,099 
4,452,265 
2,030,726 
9,144,323 
10,137,790 
321,566 
1,296,529 
708,092 
5,195,795 
13,868,086 
5,982,507 
6,810,331 
182,6<i6 
7,255,121 
11,232,876 
15,851,365 
1,503,467 
9,126.601 
6,180,350 
4,768,046 


139 


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State. 

Alabama. 

Total  93. 
Arkansas 

Total  33. 

COLORADO 

Total  4. 

CONN. 

Total  12. 

Mod  til 

Jan.  1 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr.  ^• 

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Nov. 

Dec.  J 

Mar.  1 

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June 

July 

Oct. 

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May  ) 
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Aug.  ' 
Sept. 
Oct. 

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RESULTS  FROM  TORNADO  RECORDS 
OP  205  YEARS. 

1,  The  rotary  movement  of  the  whirling  tornado-cloud  is  in 
five  hundred  and  twenty  cases  reported  as  against  the  hands  of 
a  clock,  and  twenty-nine  cases  as  probably  moving  with  the 
hands  of  a  clock. 

2.  Electrical  discharges  were  observed  in  two  hundred  and 
fifty-two  cases  as  occurrring  in  the  clouds  surrounding  the  tor- 
nado-cloud ;  that  is,  in  the  clouds  near  the  horizon :  and  in 
eighty-four  cases  as  occurring  in  the  funnel  cloudc 

3c  The  width  of  the  path  of  destruction^  supposed  to  embrace 
the  distance  between  the  areas  of  sensible  winds  on  the  two 
sides  of  the  tornado- cloud,  varied  in  1,167  cases  from  10  to 
10,560  feet,  the  average  being  1,369  feet, 

4c  The  length  of  the  tornado's  track,  as  reported  in  385 
cases,  varied  from  300  yards  to  300  miles,  the  average  being 
24.79  niiles. 

5.  The  velocity  of  progression  of  the  tornado-cloud,  as  deter- 
mined from  the  reports  in  201  cases,  varied  from  seven  to  100 
miles  per  hour,  the  average  being  44. 13  miles. 

6.  The  shortest  time  occupied  by  the  tornado-cloud  in  pass- 
ing a  given  point,  varied  from  ^*  an  instant "  to  about  twenty 
minutes;  the  average  being  about  seventy-four  seconds. 

7e  The  occurrence  of  thunder-storms  in  relation  to  tornadoes 
is  reported  upon  as  follows :  In  287  cases  they  occurred  before 
the  tornado-cloud  appeared;  in  113  cases,  accompanying  the 
tornado-cloud;  in  57  cases,  after  the  disappearance  of  the 
cloud,  and  in  eight  cases  their  entire  absence  was  noted. 

8.  Concerning  the  time  of  occurrence  of  the  tornadoes,  the 
hours  of  greatest  frequency  are  found  to  be  from  3:30  to  4:00 
P.  Me  and  from  4:30  to  5:00  p.  M. 

9.  The  State  in  which  the  greatest  number  of  tornadoes 
occurred  is  Missouri,  followed  next  in  order  by  Kansas  and 
Georgia. 


146 


10.  The  month  in  which  the  largest  number  of  tornadoes 
occurred  is  May,  followed  next  in  order  by  April  and  June. 

11.  The  month  of  greatest  frequency,  that  is,  the  month 
embracing  the  largest  number  of  days  on  which  tornadoes 
occurred,  is  May. 

12.  The  prevailing  direction  of  progressive  movement  of  the 
tornado-cloud  is  northeast. 

13.  Of  990  cases  where  the  time  of  rain  was  recorded,  377 
reported  precipitation  as  preceding  the  tornado ;  437  as  follow- 
ing it;  and  176  as  accompanying  it. 

14.  Of  604  cases  where  the  time  of  hail  was  recorded,  317 
reported  the  precipitation  as  preceding  the  tornado;  124  as 
following  it;  and  163  as  accompanying  it. 


147 


A   SCIENTIFIC   RESUMI3    OF  TORNADO 
CHARACTERISTICS. 

What  follows  under  the  head  of  "Scientific  Resume  of 
Tornado  Characteristics, "  was  prepared  for  a  special  purpose 
after  much  investigation  and  careful  study. 

What  is  called  the  "Electrical  Origin  of  Tornadoes/'  and 
all  violent  local  storms  of  a  similar  character,  is  not  of  recent 
designation.  Certain  French  scientists,  foremost  of  whom 
probably  stands  M.  Peltier,  whose  first  writings  on  this  sub- 
ject appeared  in  1839,  have  asserted  that  all  the  usual  phe- 
nomena which  combine  to  form  whirlwinds  are  the  direct 
result  of  electricity. 

In  about  i860,  M.  De  Fonville,  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  of  Sciences,  discussed  the  electrical  origin  of  storms. 
The  electrical  theory  has  found  many  followers  in  America, 
probably  the  most  prominent  in  a  sensational  way  being  Prof. 
Tice,  the  "Weather  Prophet,"  of  St.  Louis,  now  deceased. 

On  the  loth  of  June,  1879,  ^  terrific  storm  of  wind,  rain, 
and  hail,  moving  from  northwest  to  southeast,  passed  over 
Ottawa  Co.,  Kansas,  nearly  destroying  the  town  of  Delphos 
in  that  county.  Thirty-seven  buildings  were  torn  to  pieces 
and  sixteen  persons  seriously  injured.  I  visited  the  town 
a  few  days  after  the  storm  and  made  a  careful  examination  of  its 
path  and  the  destructive  effects.  Prof  Tice  heard  of  this  storm 
through  the  newspapers,  and,  in  support  of  his  theory,  pub- 
lished in  the  Cincinnati  Inquirer  of  June  5th,  1880,  a  long 
article,  from  which  the  following  extracts  are  taken  : — 

T  hold  that  electricity  is  the  cause  of  all  meteorological  phenomena, 
winds  of  every  kind,  cyclones,  cloud  formation,  rain,  hail,  and  snow. 

Railroad  and  telegraph  lines  obey  the  laws  of  induction  and  give  rise 
to  the  necessary  electric  changes  to  produce  storms. 


148 

Have  the  following  facts  any  significance  ?    Delphos,  in  Ottawa  Co. , 

Kansas,  is  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Solomon  River,  and  is  a 
station  on  the  Solomon  Valley  Railroad. 

A  tornado  on  May  30th,  1879,  destroyed  the  railroad  depot  and  many 
houses.  The  town  was  visited  by  a  second  and  very  destructive  tornado 
on  the  6th  of  June,  that  is  two  tornadoes  in  eight  days. 

In  this  hasty  attempt  to  bolster  up  a  theory  the  calculation 
missed  its  aim  through  discrepancies  in  the  facts  as  follows  : 

1st.  The  tornado  of  May  30th,  1879,  passed  eastward  three 
miles  southeast  of  Delphos  without  producing  the  slighest  in- 
jury in  the  town. 

2d.  The  storm  which  struck  Delphos  occurred  June  loth, 
and  not  June  6th. 

3d.  There  was  no  railroad  at  Delphos,  no  railroad  build- 
ings, and  no  telegraph  lines,  but  the  people  were  trying  to 
raise  the  funds  to  obtain  such  conveniences  by  extending  the 
track,  which  then  terminated  at  Minneapolis,  about  twenty 
miles  distant. 

In  1879,  '80,  and'  81  the  question  of  the  electrical  origin  of 
wind-storms  came  before  the  courts  of  certain  States,  princi- 
pally Wisconsin,  Missouri  and  Kansas,  in  the  interest  of 
insurance  claimants.  Certain  parties  who  were  policy-holders 
had  their  property  (which  was  insured  against  lightning)  de- 
stroyed by  wind-storms,  and  brought  suit  for  recovery  against 
the  insurance  companies  on  the  ground  that,  both  in  the 
popular  acceptation  of  the  term  and  in  its  true  scientific  mean- 
ing, lightning  or  electricity  was  the  cause  of  all  violent  wind- 
storms. This  theory  the  policy-holders  tried  to  maintain  by 
every  possible  means,  and  in  the  course  of  the  struggle  I  was 
summoned  to  appear  before  the  courts  as  a  scientific  expert 
on  the  question  of  the  origin  and  development  of  tornadoes. 
I  made  special  preparation  for  the  engagement,  and  took 
occasion  to  embody  the  results  of  my  labors  in  the  form  in 
which  they  here  appear  under  the  heading  of  Scientific 
Resume  of  Tornado  Characteristics/' 


149 


In  regard  to  the  electrical  origin  of  tornadoes,  I  take  pleasure 
in  quoting  from  the  pen  of  Prof  James  C.  Watson,  the  great 
astronomer  and  physicist,  who  at  the  time  of  making  this 
statement  was  director  of  Washburn  Observatory,  Madison, 
Wis.,  and  on  the  witness  stand  in  one  of  the  above  cases. 
He  says  :  ' '  I  think  that  all  science  that  is  science,  proves 
absolutely  that  the  effect  could  not  have  been  produced 
by  lightning.  The  force  of  the  tornado  cannot  be  explained 
on  the  theory  of  electric  action;  it  is  utterly  impossible,  incon- 
ceivable, and  contrary  to  every  well-established  law  of  elec- 
tricity.'' 

A  SCIENTIFIC  RESUME  OF  TORNADO  CHARACTERISTICS. 

1 .  The  forces  of  the  tornado-cloud  are  active  and  continuous 
while  the  phenomenon  exists. 

2.  They  are  exerted  successively,  uninterruptedly,  and  always 
in  the  same  general  directions. 

3.  The  forces  appear  to  be  uniform. 

4.  The  forces  are  not  apparently  diminished  by  having  to 
destroy  a  succession  of  the  heaviest  and  strongest  structures. 

5.  The  forces  are  not  affected  by  having  to  meet  with,  in 
rapid  succession,  totally  different  objects — different  in  size, 
strength,  shape,  materials,  composition  and  structure,  relative 
position,  etc.,  etc. 

6.  The  forces  are  exerted  continuously  over  a  breadth  of  sur- 
face varying  from  50  to  600  yards.  ^ 

7.  The  forces  are  exerted  continuously  for  distances  varying 
from  five  to  200  miles. 

8.  The  characteristics  of  the  tornado-cloud  are  constant,  and 
all  of  its  features  and  mode  of  development  show  it  to  be  a  wind- 
storm, simply. 

9.  When  the  cloud  disappears,  it  does  so  from  the  earth  up- 
wards, its  action  evidently  depending  upon  forces  in  the  upper 
regions  of  the  atmosphere. 

10.  The  time  of  day,  the  time  of  year,  and  the  peculiar  hot 
and  stifling  condition  of  the  atmosphere  indicate  that  heat  is  the 
physical  agent  developing  the  tornado. 


I50 

11.  The  tornado  is  invariably  accompanied  by  hail,  which  is 
evidently  not  of  electrical  formation. 

12.  Electricity  is  simply  an  accompaniment  of  the  tornado, 
as  is  the  hail,  and  not  the  primary  cause. 

13.  The  cloud  is  almost  invariably  funnel-shaped,  with  the 
small  end  nearest  the  earth.  The  resistance  of  the  atmosphere 
is  less  at  higher  altitudes  because  of  less  density,  consequently 
the  cloud  spreads  out  at  the  top. 

14.  The  tornado-cloud  always  has  a  rotary  motion,  from  right 
to  left. 

15.  It  moves  in  a  certain  direction,  S.W.  to  N.  E.,  without 
regard  to  obstacles. 

16.  The  tornado-cloud  is  generally  impenetrable  to  vision, 
and  is  sometimes  dark,  like  coal  smoke,  and  then  again  white, 
like  steam. 

17.  The  contrast  between  the  white,  steam-like  appearance 
of  the  tornado-cloud  and  the  surrounding  dark  clouds  gives  rise 
to  the  semblance  of  fire,  and  the  cloud  appears  illuminated. 

18.  What  is  called  lightning  by  the  frightened  observers  is 
never  seen  by  them  when  the  tornado-cloud  is  observed  in  ad- 
vance of  the  dark  clouds  to  the  westward  and  surrounded  by  a 
clear  sky. 

19.  What  is  termed  the  smell  of  sulphur"  is  simply  ozone 
in  the  air,  which  nearly  always  appears  after  a  thunder-storm. 

20.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  a  calm,  cool  observer  rarely  reports 
the  appearance  of  lightning  in  the  tornado-cloud  proper. 

21.  It  i§.  to  be  noted  that  lightning  is  always  observed 

and  after  the  tornado-cloud  appears,  but  in  the  heavy,  dark 
clouds  far  to  the  west,  north,  and  northeast  of  the  tornado  cloud. 

22.  Observers  are  nearly  always  mistaken  about  the  distance 
of  the  flash  of  lightning.  Light  travels  with  inconceivable  ra- 
pidity, so  does  the  electric  fluid,  and  the  electric  flash  is  of  in- 
tense brilliancy,  consequently  lightning  appears  much  nearer  to 
the  observer  than  it  really  is. 

23.  Observers  can  really  give  no  reason  for  their  belief  that 
electricity  is  the  cause  of  the  tornado,  but  almost  invariably 
reply  to  the  question,  *'that  if  electricity  is  not  the  cause,  they 
have  no  idea  what  could  produce  such  a  terrible  foi  ce." 


151 

24-  From  an  examination  of  a  great  many  witnesses  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  reason  for  behef  in  electricity  as  the  cause  is  the 
sudden,  awful,  irresistible,  and  terribly  destructive  force  of  the 
tornado.    It  is  of  the  air,  wild  and  majestic,  yet  mysterious. 

25.  Many  witnesses  at  first  report  the  lightning  as  appearing 
in  the  tornado-cloud,  and  then  after  careful  thought  remember 
that  the  flashes  were  really  from  clouds  far  beyond  the  tornado- 
cloud. 

26.  Almost  invariably  the  observer  is  so  placed  that  the 
tornado-cloud  is  between  him  and  the  dark,  threatening  clouds 
to  the  westward,  so  that  in  the  excitement  of  the  occasion  he 
cannot  distinguish  the  exact  location  of  the  source. 

27.  In  the  tornado's  track  the  debris  is  always  carried  in  the 
direction  of  the  moving  force,  frequently  in  the  arc  of  and  some- 
times entirely  throughout  a  circle.  This  is  not  a  peculiarity  of 
electric  force. 

28.  Heavy  and  light  objects  are  transported  long  distances, 
the  latter  sometimes  50  miles. 

29.  Objects  that  are  carried  long  distances  are  always  trans- 
ported to  the  east  or  northeast,  and  evidently  by  air-currents. 

30.  Objects  carried  long  distances  are  frequently  found  unin- 
jured. 

31.  Vegetation  is  withered  by  the  action  of  the  sun's  heat  in 
evaporating  the  fluids  from  the  leaves  and  buds  that  have  been 
broken  and  bruised  by  the  whirling  action  of  the  air  in  the 
tornado-cloud.  The  evaporation  drys  and  withers  the  foliage, 
and  it  looks  seared. 

32.  Where  the  bark  of  trees  has  been  chipped  ofl"  or  loosened 
in  places  the  sap  appears  and  is  evaporated  by  the  action  of  the 
sun's  heat,  and  as  a  result  the  tender  surface  of  the  exposed 
portion  of  the  body  of  the  tree  is  turned  black. 

33.  No  ordinary  wind  or  hardly  a  heavy,  straight  wind  is  able 
to  so  whip  the  foliage  of  trees,  or  the  leaves  of  grain  and  plants, 
as  to  cause  them  to  wither  and  appear  scorched.  It  requires 
the  rapid,  peculiar,  and  irresistible  rotary  action  of  the  air  in  a 
tornado  to  accomplish  this  result. 

34.  The  energy  of  the  tornado  is  exhibited  with  no  greater 
force  in  relation  to  metals  than  in  relation  to  other  substances. 


152 


35'  The  force  of  the  tornado-cloud  is  not  measured  any 
respect  by  the  character  of  the  materials  upon  which  it  acts. 

36.  The  form  of  an  object,  no  matter  what  the  size,  does  not 
control  or  modify  or  influence  in  any  way  the  intensity  of  the 
tornado's  force. 

37.  Objects  are  destroyed  by  the  peculiar  force  of  the  tornado 
before  the  tornado-cloud  reaches  them.  Trees  begin  to  sway 
and  are  bent  to  the  ground,  and  buildings  and  lighter  objects 
are  drawn  or  sucked  towards  the  advancing  cloud  from  all  sides 
of  it. 

38.  By  the  rotary  action  of  the  tornado-cloud  the  condensed 
vapor  is  whirled  into  a  fine  mist,  giving  it  the  appearance  of 
steam,  and  lighting  the  interior  of  the  cloud. 

39.  The  tornado  is  accompanied  by  a  rumbling  noise  (very 
peculiar),  which  never  ceases  while  the  funnel-shaped  cloud  is 
upon  the  earth  or  a  short  distance  above  it. 

40.  Timbers  acted  upon  by  the  force  of  the  tornado  are  often 
driven  to  considerable  depths  into  the  solid  earth,  sometimes  to 
the  distance  of  nine  feet.  They  are  sometimes  driven  into  build- 
ings and  other  pieces  of  timber. 

41.  Wherever  fire  is  reported  to  have  been  seen  in  the  debris 
of  the  tornado  it  has,  upon  close  examination,  been  found  that 
witnesses  did  not  actually  see  fire  (they  saw  light) ;  but  they  saw 
smoke,  and  from  that  judged  that  fire  must  be  present.  Now, 
this  so-called  smoke  is  nothing  but  the  dust  and  condensed 
vapor  of  the  whirling  tornado  cloud,  which  envelops  and  pene- 
trates every  structure  over  which  the  tornado  passes.  This  so- 
called  smoke  is  often  seen  issuing  from  the  doors,  windows,  and 
other  openings  of  the  house,  and  even  out  of  chimneys,  when 
fire  was  known  not  to  have  been  in  the  house  at  the  time. 

42.  The  energy  of  the  tornado-cloud  is  confined  with  in  very 
narrow  limits,  the  boundaries  being  distinguished  with  remark- 
able exactness  even  in  the  atmosphere. 

43.  The  width  of  the  tornado's  path  upon  the  earth's  surface 
is  probably  the  counterpart  of  the  diameter  of  the  upper  or  broad 
end  of  the  funnel-shaped  cloud. 

44.  In  the  ricochet  motion  of  the  tornado-cloud,  especially 
as  the  cloud  leaves  the  earth,  the  maximum  destructive  force  is 


153 


found  to  be  diminished,  but  not  entirely  suspended.  The  in- 
rushing  air-currents  are  still  sufficiently  powerful  to  overturn 
fences,  small  buildings,  and  trees,  and  lift  loose  objects  from  the 
earth. 

45.  In  the  ricochet  motion  of  the  tornado-cloud  the  cloud 
does  not  dip  down  to  the  earth,  although  it  appears  to  do  so. 
There  is  not  an  actual  descent  of  the  entire  body  of  air  within 
which  the  terrible  forces  are  at  play.  On  the  contrary,  the  in- 
rushing  air-currents  from  the  earth's  surface,  as  they  pass  upward 
and  unite  with  the  disturbed  conditions  above,  carry  up  dust  and 
small  debris,  which,  mingling  with  the  condensed  vapor  from 
the  rapidly  rising  air  forms  a  dark  cloud,  and  completes  the  con- 
nection to  the  eye  between  the  upper  cloud  and  the  earth. 

46.  The  potential  and  living  energies  of  the  tornado  must  be 
distinguished  from  the  cloud,  which  simply  shadows  forth  the 
limits  within  which  these  energies  exist  or  may  be  called  into 
action. 

47.  The  so-called  quiverings  and  contortions  of  the  cloud  are 
but  the  peculiar  movements,  in  fantastic  forms,  assumed  by  the 
rapidly  condensing  masses  of  vapor. 

48.  The  funnel  form  of  the  cloud  is  due  to  the  peculiar 
ascensional  movement  of  air-currents,  the  vapor  being  condensed 
along  the  central  line  of  movement  by  the  cold  of  elevation. 
This  action  would  tend  to  form  a  column  of  cloud,  the  upper 
extremity  of  which  would  be  broader  than  the  lower,  because  of 
the  overflow  and  spreading  out  of  the  ascending  masses  of  air 
in  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  and  also  diminished 
resistance  to  the  gyratory  motion  of  the  vortex, 

49.  The  motive  power  of  a  tornado  and  the  agency  which 
lifts  objects  or  carries  them  long  distances,  is  that  motion  of  the 
air  within  the  cloud  set  up  by  the  variable  heat  conditions  of 
large  masses  of  air  over  adjacent  regions. 

50.  The  violent  upheaval  of  a  small  column  of  air  forms  a 
vortex  along  the  central  line  of  movement  within  which  the 
power  of  pressure  against  all  resistance  is  often  greater  than  one 
atmosphere. 

5 1 .  The  tornado  vortex  may  be  formed  either  by  an  ascen- 
sional movement  of  a  mass  of  heated  air,  giving  rise  to  unstable 


154 

equilibrium,  or  by  the  meeting  of  opposite  currents  with  high- 
temperature  gradients,  or  by  a  combination  of  both  of  these 
meteorological  conditions. 

52.  Two  currents  of  air  approaching  each  other  from  oppo- 
site directions  will  not  come  directly  together,  because  of  the 
influence  of  the  relative  motion  of  the  earth.  The  mass  of  air 
coming  from  the  south  would  have  a  greater  velocity  eastward 
than  that  coming  from  the  north.  Therefore,  instead  of  meet- 
ing each  other  in  a  direct  line,  the  two  currents  will  form  an 
angle  at  their  intersection,  and  the  combination  of  the  two 
masses  will  give  rise  to  a  rotation  in  a  direction  contrary  to  the 
hands  of  a  watch  with  its  face  upwards.  These  conditions  ac- 
count for  the  spiral  movement  of  the  air-currents  and  the  forma- 
tion of  the  vortex  in  the  tornado.  The  cold  air  from  the  north- 
ward will  under -run  the  warmer  air  from  the  southward,  because 
of  the  difference  in  density  of  the  two  masses,  and  as  a  result 
will  aid  in  the  formation  of  the  whirl. 

53.  The  tornado  vortex  cannot  remain  stationary  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  rotating  earth,  but  must,  by  well-known  dynamical 
laws,  move  bodily  in  a  direction  the  resultant  of  the  opposing 
forces  in  its  formation. 

54.  The  tornado  vortex  will  have  a  tendency  to  drift  with 
any  strongly  prevailing  current  of  air. 

55.  The  tornado  vortex  may  be  very  whimsical  in  short  move- 
ments, owing  to  the  extreme  elasticity  of  air  and  the  mobility  of 
its  particles. 

56.  After  carefully  reading  my  various  papers  on  the  subject 
of  tornadoes,  H.  H.  Rowland,  Professor  of  Physics,  Johns  Hop- 
kins University,  Baltimore,  says  :  "  It  becomes  apparent  that  if 
electricity  has  anything  to  do  with  the  development  of  a  tornado, 
it  is  7iot  with  the  tornado-cloud  itself  after  it  has  foriiied  and  the 
tornado  is  advancing  over  its  path  of  destruction,  but  with  the 
two  clouds  which  attend  the  for77iation  of  the  tornado." 

57.  All  of  the  phenomena  of  a  tornado  cannot  be  accounted 
for  on  the  supposition  of  opposite  electrification  of  two  clouds. 

58.  According  to  Sir  William  Thomson,  the  electrostatic  ten- 
sion of  air  is  only  equal  to  a  pressure  of  68  grammes  per  square 


155 

decimetre,  or  one  fifteen-thousandth  of  the  pressure  of  one  at- 
mosphere. 

59.  There  is  no  fact  in  observation  or  in  electrical  science  to 
prove  that  clouds,  under  any  conditions,  actually  move  about  in 
the  atmosphere  through  the  agency  of  opposite  electricities  or 
electrical  attraction. 

60.  In  the  incipient  stages  of  a  tornado,  observers -always  speak 
of  the  rushing  together  of  clouds  from  opposite  directions.  This 
is  a  very  natural  and  necessary  effect  in  the  development  of  a 
vortex.  It  is  the  air-currents  (set  in  motion  by  contrary  heat 
conditions)  which  cause  the  clouds  to  move,  and  not  electrical 
attraction. 

61.  There  is  no  distinction  between  the  movements  of  air 
masses  under  the  most  ordinary  atmospheric  conditions  and 
those  under  which  they  move  in  the  tornado,  except  in  intensity. 

62.  If  electrical  attraction  is  the  cause  of  air-motion  in  a  tor- 
nado, it  is  the  cause  of  any  and  all  atmospheric  movements, 
however  feeble  or  mighty.  But  this  remarkable  position  no 
physicist  contends  for  a  moment. 

63.  The  electrical  tension  of  the  air  cannot  under  the  most 
favorable  atmospheric  conditions  cause  the  movement  of  oppo- 
sitely electrified  air  masses,  because  of  the  excellent  conductivity 
of  free  air,  which  always  tends  to  equalize  electrical  potential. 

64.  In  a  mass  of  air  or  cloud  having  an  altitude  of  one  mile, 
a  diameter  of  one  mile,  and  a  thickness  of  one-tenth  of  a  mile, 
the  electro-motive  power  can  never  exceed  68  grammes  per 
square  decimetre.  Converted  into  English  measures  this  expres- 
sion denotes  a  pressure  of  1,049.3964  grains  upon  an  area  expos- 
ing a  surface  of  15.5006  square  inches.  At  this  rate  the  electro- 
motive force  of  the  entire  mass  of  air  or  cloud  would  be  about 
17,000,000  kilogrammes,  or  37,478,561.25  pounds  avoirdupois. 
The  weight  of  this  large  mass  of  air  or  cloud  is  about  500,000,000 
kilogrammes,  or  1,102,310,625  pounds  avoirdupois.  Now,  the 
square  root  of  the  ratio  of  the  mass  to  the  force  is  about  5  ; 
hence,  the  velocity  of  motion  required  by  the  mass  in  moving 
any  distance  will  be  five  times  less  than  the  velocity  of  a  body 
falling  the  same  distance  under  the  action  of  gravity.  Under 
these  circumstances  the  velocity  acquired  by  the  mass  in  passing 


156 

over  a- mile  will  be  about  seventy  miles  per  hour.  Two  such 
masses  of  air  or  cloud  coming  from  opposite  directions  would 
thus  approach  each  other  at  the  rate  of  140  miles  per  hour. 
But  this  is  the  velocity  of  movement  of  the  two  masses  in  free 
space,  which  condition  never  actually  exists.  Under  natural 
circumstances  the  electro-motive  force  of  the  opposing  masses 
would  not  only  have  to  move  each  mass  as  a  whole,  but  the  en- 
tire atmosphere  around  them.  Furthermore,  the  extreme  of 
electrical  force,  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  has 
been  assumed.  Returning  to  the  numerical  expressions  of  force 
we  find  that  the  work  done  by  17,000,000  kilogrammes  over  a 
distance,  for  example,  of  2,000  inches  is  34,000,000,000  kilo- 
grammemetres  or  68,000,000,000  kilogrammemetres  in  both, 
which  is  equivalent  to  about  200,000,000  foot  tons  of  work.  This 
quantity  of  work  would  cause  a  cylinder  of  air  2,640  feet  high 
and  1,320  feet  in  diameter  to  make  400  revolutions  per  hour. 
At  the  circumference  the  motion  would  reach  a  velocity  of  about 
300  miles  per  hour,  decreasing  towards  the  center.  In  this  rough 
calculation  the  most  advantageous  circumstances  have  been  as- 
sumed, and  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  for  an  instant  that  these 
conditions  ever  exist  in  the  manner  estimated. 

65.  Assuming  variability  of  heat  conditions  as  the  source  of 
energy  in  the  tornado,  we  may  derive  a  force  which  is  sometimes 
500  times  as  great  as  the  measure  of  one  atmosphere,  while  the 
force  due  to  electricity  can  never  exceed  more  than  one  fifteen- 
thousandth  of  the  same  pressure. 

66.  A  column  of  heated  air,  ascending  and  drawing  in  air 
from  the  surrounding  regions,  would  very  quickly  develop  a 
rotation  possessing  an  energy  which  might  be  tens,  and  even 
hundreds  of  times,  in  excess  of  that  due  to  electricity.  Similar 
results  would  follow  in  case  of  differently  heated  masses  of  air  ap-^ 
proaching  each  other  from  opposite  directions. 

67.  If  the  forces  of  a  tornado  are  of  electrical  origin,  the  tor- 
nado once  formed  must  gradually  decrease  in  power  and  motion 
as  it  advances.  But  if  the  theory  of  heated  air  is  conformable 
to  truth,  the  tornado  may  augment  in  intensity  after  formation. 
In  other  words,  if  the  origin  is  electrical,  the  maximum  power 
of  the  tornado  is  reached  at  once  ;  if  calorffic,  the  maximum 


157 


power  i5  attained  gradually  and  by  successive  steps.  It  is  not 
difficult  to, realize  that  the  results  of  all  observation  and  investi- 
gation support  the  theory  of  heated  air  as  the  source  of  tornadic 
action. 

68.  All  observation  and  investigation  point  to  the  fact  that 
the  development  of  a  tornado  is  gradual.  It  is  not  ushered  into 
complete  existence  at  the  beginning.  When  the  tornado  vortex 
reaches  the  earth  the  extreme  violence  of  the  storm  is  accom- 
plished, and  this  intensity  continues  undiminished  while  the 
cloud  remains  upon  the  surface.  It  frequently  happens  that  the 
tornado  vortex  is  observed  to  form  by  the  coalescence  of  several 
smaller  vortices  which  play  about  the  central  whirl  with  varying 
form  and  intensity. 

69.  The  larger  the  volume  of  air  (within  vertical  limits)  em- 
braced by  the  vortex  the  more  destructive  the  tornado's  violence. 
Therefore,  as  the  vortex  descends  from  the  lofty  regions  of  its 
inception,  its  aggregate  energy  is  constantly  increasing  until  it 
reaches  the  earth. 

70.  The  greater  the  elevation  of  the  vortex  above  the  earth, 
the  greater  the  mass  of  intervening  air  to  overcome  and  the 
smaller  the  volume  engaged  in  the  production  of  energy ;  con- 
sequently, the  frequently  observed  intermissions  of  energy  in  the 
tornado's  path.  This  intermission  does  not  mean  total  absence 
of  force,  but  only  a  diminution  of  the  maximum  power. 

71.  Owing  to  the  great  centrifugal  forces  of  the  tornado-cloud 
the  center  of  the  vortex  must  very  nearly  approach  the  condition 
of  a  vacuum. 

72.  The  opportunities  for  the  formation  of  a  tornado  vortex 
in  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere  are  greater  than  near  the 
earth's  surface,  the  density  of  the  air  increasing  as  you  descend, 
making  the  resistance  to  motion  in  that  medium  inversely  as  the 
altitude. 

73.  After  the  vortex  has  once  formed,  it  readily  descends  to  the 
earth  by  drawing  in  the  air  from  beneath  it  as  well  as  from  either 
side.  Thus  the  contact  of  air  masses  of  different  temperatures 
is  secured,  rapid  condensation  follows,  and  the  funnel-shaped 
cloud  is  soon  formed. 


158 


74.  As  the  vortical  action  of  the  air  becomes  intensified,  its 
power  to  overcome  resistance  is  multiplied,  and  tlie  descent  of 
the  vortex  continues.  At  the  eaith's  suiface  it  overcomes  all 
resistance,  and  the  dread  hour-glass  form  of  the  tornado-cloud 
soon  appears. 

75.  A  tornado  is  that  condition  of  the  atmosphere  which 
gives  rise  to  the  development  :*nd  maintenance  of  a  vortex, 
whose  outward  visible  fashion  or  fig^ure  is  a  funnel-shaped  cloud 
that  revolves  about  a  vertical  axis  from  right  to  left. 

76.  The  origin  of  a  tornado  is  calorific;  that  is,  the  phenom- 
enon xesults  from  high-temperature  gradients  existing  in  adja- 
cent air  masses. 

77.  The  concomitants  of  the  tornado  are  an  oppressive  or 
sultry  condition  of  the  air.  The  gradual  setting  in  and  prolonged 
opposition  of  northerly  and  southerly  air-currents  over  a  con- 
siderable area.  A  gradual,  but  continued,  fall  of  the  thermom- 
eter, with  a  prevalence  of  the  northerly  currents,  and  a  rise  with 
the  predominance  of  the  southerly.  Decided  temperature  gradi- 
ents across  the  line  of  progressive  movement  to  the  northwest 
and  southeast.  Huge  masses  of  dark  and  portentous  clouds 
in  the  northwest  and  southwest,  possessing  a  remarkable  in- 
tensity of  color,  usually  a  deep  green. — A  remarkable  rolling 
and  tumbling  of  the  clouds,  scuds  darting  from  all  points  of  the 
compass  towards  a  common  center. — Hail  and  rain  accompany 
the  tornado,  the  former  either  in  unusual  size,  form,  or  quantity, 
and  the  latter  either  in  remarkable  quantity  or  size  of  drops. 
The  presence  of  ozone  is  usually  detected  in  the  wake  of  the 
tornado. — A  remarkable  roaring  noise,  like  the  passage  of  many 
railroad  trains  through  a  tunnel.  The  clouds  generated  by  the 
vortex  assume  the  form  of  a  funnel  with  the  smallest  end  towards 
the  earth. — The  vortex  has  four  motions,  viz.  :  ist,  the  whirHng 
or  gyratory  motion,  always  from  right  to  left;  2d,  the  progres- 
sive mot'on,  generally  from  some  point  in  the  southwest  quad- 
rant to  some  point  in  the  northeast  quadrant;  3d,  the  ricochet 
motion  ;  4th,  the  oscillatory  motion.  -  The  remarkable  contrac- 
tion of  the  storm's  path.  The  remarkable  definiteness  of  the 
limits  of  the  storm's  path.  Upon  reaching  the  earth's  surface 
the  vortex  assumes  the  form  of  an  hour-glass. 


159 


yS.  The  characteristic  effects  of  a  tornado  are  :  Objects  are 
drawn  towards  the  vortex  from  every  point  of  the  compass. 
Objects  passing  into  the  vortex  are  thrown  upward  and  outward 
by  the  vortical  action  of  the  engaged  air.  Structures  are  Uterally 
torn  to  pieces  by  the  vortical  action  of  the  atmosphere,  evidence 
of  which  is  afforded  both  by  the  fineness  of  the  debris  and  also 
its  disposition  in  the  storm's  path.  The  debris  is  thrown  inward 
from  either  edge  of  the  storm's  path.  Light  objects  are  carried 
to  great  heights  and  also  great  distances.  Objects  are  carried 
inward  and  upward  by  the  centripetal  action  of  the  vortex,  and 
outward  by  the  centrifugal  force.  Weight  and  size  are  conditions 
which  present  immaterial  values  to  the  power  of  the  tornado. 
People  are  stripped  of  clothing.  Fowls  and  birds  denuded  of 
feathers.  Trees  are  whipped  to  bare  poles.  Long  and  heavy 
timbers  are  driven  to  considerable  depths  in  the  soHd  earth. 
The  vortex  is  completely  filled  with  flying  debris.  Timbers  are 
driven  through  the  sides  of  buildings.  Sand  and  gravel  are 
driven  into  wood.  Human  beings  and  animals  are  run  through 
with  splinters  and  timbers.  Straws,  bits  of  glass,  and  pieces  of 
metal  are  driven  into  wood.  The  strongest  trees  are  uprooted 
or  twisted  off  near  the  roots.  People  and  animals  are  terribly 
mangled  by  the  force  of  the  wind  and  by  contact  with  flying 
debris.  In  the  path  of  the  storm  all  vegetation  is  destroyed. 
Railroad  trains  are  thrown  from  the  track.  Iron  bridges  are 
completely  dismantled  and  carried  from  their  foundations. 
Heavy  boulders,  weighing  tons,  are  rolled  along  the  earth.  The 
largest  railroad  engines  are  lifted  from  the  tracks. 

79.  All  objects,  whether  metal  or  non-metallic,  magnetic  or 
non-magnetic,  simple  or  compound,  animate  or  inanimate,  are 
acted  upon  and  with  in  a  similar  manner. 

80.  Every  effect  is  the  result  of  ordinary  mechanical  motion 
with  varying  degrees  of  intensity. 

81.  If  it  were  possible  to  revolve  a  mass  of  air  (similar  to  that 
engaged  in  the  tornado's  vortex)  with  enormous  velocity  by 
mechanical  means,  the  characteristic  violence  of  the  tornado 
would  follow. 

82.  The  motive  power  of  the  tornado  is  not  and  cannot  be  elec- 
trical while  our  atmosphere  remains  in  in  its  normal  condition. 


i6o 


83.  The  peculiar  roaring  noise  which  accompanies  the  prog- 
ress of  the  tornado  cannot  be  ascribed  to  the  intervention  of 
electrical  forces.  Within  the  range  of  observation  and  experi- 
ment nothing  has  been  brought  to  light  in  electrical  science 
which  will  authenticate  such  a  statement.  It  is  far  more  reason- 
able to  assert  that  the  noise  is  produced  by  the  resistance  which 
the  rapid  and  violent  indraughts  of  air  encounter  while  passing 
into  the  tornado's  vortex.  The  vortex  approximates  a  vacuum, 
and  the  air  rushes  into  it  at  the  spout  end  near  the  earth  with 
great  violence,  attended  by  a  hollow,  sucking  sound  of  marked 
intensity. 

84.  All  sound  is  vibration  and  the  sonorous  body  may  some- 
times be  air.  In  the  tornado  it  is  a  vast  column  of  g)Tating  air, 
within  close  confines,  whose  vibrations  are  propagated  through 
the  surrounding  masses  of  air  (not  partaking  of  g}Tatory  action) 
in  every  direction. 

85.  In  passing  through  a  body  of  timber  or  during  the  destruc- 
tion of  buildings  the  roar  of  the  storm  increases  because  the 
sources  of  sound  are  augmented ;  there  is  a  greater  number  of 
sonorous  bodies  set  in  vibration ;  the  vast  and  varied  mass  of 
flying  debris  furnish  a  multitude  of  vibrating  centers  of  variable 
degrees  of  intensity,  and  the  commingling  and  confused  succes- 
sion of  sounds  produce  an  interminable  roar. 

86.  The  only  possible  method  for  electrical  force  to  effect  the 
formation  of  the  tornado,  would  be  by  some  (as  yet  unknown) 
relation  of  physical  agencies  to  set  the  air  in  motion  and  keep  it 
in  motion  (a  motion  of  the  most  terrific  violence)  for  several 
hours.  But  this  result  cannot  be  reached  owing  to  the  extremely 
low  electrical  tension  of  the  air.  If  it  were  possible,  however, 
wind  would  still  be  the  immediate  agent  of  destruction  and  not 
electricity. 

87.  If  electricity  enters  as  the  fundamental  cause  into  the 
origin  of  the  tornado,  it  must  act  likewise  throughout  the  entire 
category  of  atmospheric  disturbance.  If  so,  then  all  wind  (air 
in  motion),  however  feeble  or  violent,  is  of  electrical  origin.  But 
this  conclusion  leads  to  an  impossibility. 

88.  It  is  simply  absurd  to  suppose,  and  much  worse  to  insist, 
that  electricity  directly,  by  its  attractive  and  repellant  forces, 
produces  the  destruction  in  the  wake  of  the  tornado. 


i6i 

89.  If,  however,  electricity  does  not  act  in  the  manner  here 
described,  its  intervention  could  only  be  effected  by  supposing 
that  the  whirling  masses  of  clouds  and  air  were  in  some  inde- 
scribable method  exerting  the  power  of  magnets. 

90.  A  magnet,  however  powerful,  will  only  manifest  its  force 
in  the  presence  of  magnetic  bodies  or  bodies  that  are  capable  of 
being  magnetized. 

91.  In  the  tornado,  however,  all  objects  receive  the  violence 
of  the  storm  irrespective  of  magnetic  properties. 

92.  It  is  claimed  that  no  disruptive  discharge  of  electricity 
takes  place  during  the  ascensional  m.ovement  of  debris  in  the 
tornado  vortex.  If  so,  what  produces  the  so-called  electrical 
displays  in  the  cloud  ? 

93.  How  does  lightning  appear  in  the  tornado-cloud?  Electric 
flashes  cannot  form  except  by  a  disruptive  discharge.  Can  it  be 
explained  by  saying  that  part  of  the  electrical  force  is  expended 
in  flashes  and  the  remainder  in  moving  objects  upon  the  earth  ? 
Such  results  would  necessitate  the  existence  of  an  infinite  supply 
of  atmospheric  electricity.  There  is  no  evidence  of  any  such 
quantity  in  the  air  or  the  possibility  of  producing  it  through  the 
intervention  of  natural  agencies. 

94.  There  is  no  fact  or  record  to  show  that  an  electrical  dis- 
charge or  any  manifestation  of  atmospheric  electricity  ever 
entirely  demolished  a  large  stone  or  frame  building ;  ever  car- 
ried the  debris  of  buildings  for  miles  in  the  air ;  ever  lifted  a 
locomotive  from  the  track ;  ever  carried  an  iron  bridge  from  its 
foundations  and  twisted  the  frame-work  into  a  shapeless  mass  ; 
ever  rolled  a  boulder  from  its  bed  in  the  ground ;  ever  imbedded 
one  piece  of  timber  into  another  after  having  carried  the  former 
for  several  hundred  yards  in  the  air ;  ever  carried  bedding  and 
clothing  for  miles  in  the  air;  ever  elevated  to  considerable 
heights  in  the  air  columns  of  water  from  ponds,  lakes,  and  rivers; 
ever  lifted  animals  from  the  earth  and  carried  them  over  build- 
ings ;  ever  drew  the  water  from  a  well  or  cistern ;  ever  twisted 
a  tree  from  its  stump ;  ever  turned  a  building  bottom  side  up  or 
end  for  end  without  otherwise  injuring  it.  Many  other  effects 
of  the  peculiar  manifestations  of  power  in  the  tornado  might  be 
Instanced  to  illustrate  the  impossibility  of  electrical  inter v^ention. 


1 62 


95.  There  are  many  effects  of  electrical  force,  decidedly  char- 
acteristic, which  are  not  within  the  compass  of  a  tornado's 
power.  This  statement  may  be'  reversed  with  eqaul  significance. 

96.  Lightning  is  the  result  of  an  extremely  itensified  discharge 
of  electricity  in  the  open  air. 

97.  The  lightning's  flash  is  the  result  overcoming  the  electri- 
cal tension  of  the  air  at  any  point  or  succession  of  points. 

98.  The  concomitants  of  lightning  are  :  large  accumulation 
of  electric  potential,  high  electrical  tension,  the  presence  o 
large  masses  of  cumulo-stratus  clouds,  brilliant  flashes  and 
heavy  detonation. 

99.  The  effects  of  lightning  are  :  rupturing  and  scaterring  of 
imperfectly  conducting  substances  and  the  inflaming  of  those 
which  are  combustible ;  heating,  reddening,  melting,  and 
volatilization  of  metals  ;  the  production  of  shocks  more  or  less 
severe  and  often  fatal  to  lives  of  men  and  animals  ;  the  produc- 
tion of  ozone,  causing  a  sulphurous  odor. 

100.  The  cause  of  atmospheric  electricity  is  not  definitely 
known,  but  its  existence  has  been  ascribed  to  the  following 
agencies :  evaporation,  the  chemical  processes  incident  to 
vegetable  life,  the  friction  of  solid  and  liquid  particles  against 
the  earth  and  against  each  other  by  the  movement  of  air- 
currents. 

1 01.  By  condensation,  unelectrified  vapor  becomes  an  electri- 
fied liquid,  and  opposite  electricities  are  developed. 

102.  All  atmospheric  phenomena  involving  rapid  and  heavy 
condensation  are  necessarily  accompanied  by  electrical  manifes- 
tations. 

103.  The  earth  may  be  negatively  or  positively  electrified,  as 
also  the  air  and  clouds  may  be  possessed  of  either  positive  or 
negative  electrification. 

104.  Clouds  are  never  insulated  from  the  earth. 

105.  We  may  suppose  that  a  mass  of  comparatively  dry  air 
interposes  itself  between  the  earth  and  a  large  collection  of 
clouds  for  a  short  time.  In  such  an  event,  the  positive  electricity 
of  the  clouds  induces  negative  electricity  upon  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  mass  of  dry  air,  repelling  the  positive  electricity  to 
the  lower  surface  of  the  mass.     The  positive  charge  induces  a 


163 


negative  charge  upon  the  earth  immediately  beneath,  and  the 
two  electricities  are  neutralized,  leaving  the  superincumbent 
mass  of  dry  air  negatively  electrified  and  consequently  repelled 
by  the  earth. 

106.  The  foregoing  supposition  is  theoretically  correct,  but 
such  a  condition  of  the  atmosphere  does  not  exist. 

107.  The  mass  of  dry  air,  if  constant  and  stationary,  would 
act  as  a  sort  of  insulator  or  non-conductor  between  the  clouds 
and  earth.  But  the  air  is  constantly  in  motion,  and  therefore 
the  clouds  also.  The  air  is  constantly  changing  its  degree  of 
moisture  and  the  tension  of  its  vapor.  All  of  these  changes  and 
others  are  constantly  and  decidedly  qualifying  its  degree  of 
conductivity. 

108.  Electricity  can  always  be  detected  in  the  upper  regions 
of  the  atmosphere. 

109.  In  clear  weather  atmospheric  electricity  is  nearly  always 
positive.  In  stormy  weather  the  indications  are  both  positive 
and  negative,  and  about  as  frequently  of  one  sign  as  the  other. 

no.  Great  variations  are  found  to  occur  in  electrical  density 
in  the  lower  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  owing  to  the  rapid  and 
marked  changes  in  potential  in  the  cloud  regions. 

111.  Assuming  the  electrical  density  of  the  earth  as  constant, 
there  are  marked  differences  of  potential  as  we  recede  from  its 
surface. 

112.  Electrical  density  is  greatest  on  elevated  portions  of  the 
earth's  surface  ;  for  example,  on  a  mountain  peak  as  compared 
with  the  plain  below ;  on  hills  as  compared  with  valleys. 

1 13.  In  all  conditions  of  the  atmosphere  there  is  a  remarkable 
variability  of  electrical  potential.  As  measured  with  the  varia- 
bility of  other  meteorological  phenomena,  there  is  hardly  an 
element  whose  fluctuations  bear  any  comparison,  either  in 
extent  or  rapidity. 

114.  All  observations  unite  in  showing  that  electrical  poten- 
tial is  greater  in  winter  than  in  summer  ;  the  most  decided  min- 
imum being  in  May  or  June. 

115.  Diurnal  variations  indicate  the  presence  of  two  maxima 
of  potential,  which  on  the  average  occur  at  the  hours  9  A.  M. 
and  9  p.  M. 


164 


1 16.  Precipitation  from  the  under  surface  of  a  cloud  or  mass 
of  clouds  may  be  electrified  with  a  sign  opposite  to  that  with 
which  the  upper  surface  is  charged. 

117.  The  combination  of  the  particles  of  precipitation, 
whether  of  snow,  rain,  or  hail,  does  not  augment  the  quantity 
of  electricity  or  affect  the  potential,  although  it  may  increase  the 
electrical  density  of  the  mass. 

118.  The  electricity  of  the  clouds  is  constantly  fluctuating 
through  an  interminable  succession  of  changes  in  the  electrical 
potential  of  the  surrounding  air  and  the  neutralizing  effect  of  the 
earth. 

119.  That  form  of  precipitation  usually  most  favorable  to  the 
increase  of  electrical  potential  is  snow.  If  accompanied  with 
high  wind  the  gain  is  still  greater. 

120.  Electrolysis  is  the  decomposition  of  certain  compound 
substances  by  the  passage  through  them  of  an  electric  current. 
These  substances  are  therefore  called  electrolytes. 

121.  Liquids  (they  must  be  conductors)  are  the  only  subjects 
which  are  electrolytic. 

122.  The  vapor  of  water  is  not  electrolytic  because  it  is  a  gas. 
Therefore  the  assertion  that  its  electrolysis  produces  the  heat  of 
the  tornado  is  without  foundation. 

123.  Electrolysis  is  the  product  of  what  is  termed  current 
electricity,  while  the  electricity'which  is  present  in  the  tornado 
is  called  frictional.  Therefore  no  feature  of  the  tornado  can 
owe  its  origin  to  electrolysis. 

124.  Every  electrolyte  must  be  composed  of  compound  mole- 
:ules.  Even  after  electrolysis  the  anion  and  cation  may  still  be 
possessed  of  a  number  of  molecules  of  simple  bodies.  Every 
electrolyte  in  the  liquid  state  becomes  a  non-conductor  when 
solidified  and  thereby  loses  its  electrolytic  condition. 

125.  Pure  water  has  never  been  electrolyzed  because  of  its 
great  resistance  to  electrolytic  conduction.  The  purer  the 
water  the  greater  its  electrical  resistance.  In  fact,  pure  water 
must  be  acidulated  in  order  to  make  its  conductivity  more  sus- 
ceptible. 


i6s 

126.  All  chemical  compounds  are  not  electrolytic,  and  even 
compounds  containing  the  same  components  as  electrolytes,  but 
not  in  equivalent  proportions,  are  therefore  not  electrolytes. 

127.  In  an  insulated  conductor  the  algebraic  sum  of  the  two 
electricities  which  may  be  induced  is  equal  to  zero.  But  where 
the  conductor  has  an  independent  charge  the  resulting  force  of 
the  induction  will  be  expressed  by  the  algebraic  sum  of  the 
force  which  would  exist  if  there  was  no  independent  charge  and 
the  force  due  to  the  independent  distribution  without  induction. 

128.  The  forces  of  attraction  and  repulsion  vary  inversely  as 
the  square  of  the  distance  from  the  inductive  source.  Divide 
the  distances  by  2  multiplies  the  force  by  2.  Multiply  the  dis- 
tance by  2  divides  the  force  by  2. 

129.  The  forces  of  attraction  and  repulsion  depend  upon  the 
amount  of  the  charge.  The  charge  depends  upon  the  size  of 
the  body  and  the  distribution  of  the  electricity. 

130.  In  a  good  conductor  the  electric  charge  passes  instantly 
from  one  molecule  on  another.  In  fact,  the  discharge  of  each 
molecule  may  be  considered  instantaneous.  It  is  a  moderate 
conductor  or  poor  insulator.  Each  molecule  may  possess  for  a 
very  short  space  of  time  positive  electricity  on  one  side  and  neg- 
ative on  the  other. 

131.  In  a  good  insulator  the  discharge  is  exceedingly  slow, 
and  therefore  a  high  degree  of  polarization  may  be  maintained 
for  a  considerable  time.  The  above  statements  are  in  accord- 
ance with  Faraday's  theory  of  induction  by  contiguous  par- 
ticles." 

132.  The  peculiar  sensations  of  what  are  termed  burning," 
"scorching,"  or  "stifling  heat,"  which  are  reported  by  those 
who  experience  the  violence  of  the  tornado's  vortex,  must 
be  due  to  the  latent  heat  of  vaporization  which  is  given  off 
in  great  quantities  by  the  extremely  rapid  condensation  that  at- 
tends the  tornado  as  a  constant  feature.  A  numerical  expres- 
sion may  be  given  to  the  above  by  stating  that  a  pound  of  vapor 
of  water  at  the  temperature  of  100  degrees  centigrade  will  pro- 
duce 536  degrees  of  sensible  heat,  upon  being  condensed  at  the 
same  temperature. 


i66 

133.  The  amount  of  lament  heat  hberated  in  the  process  of 
condensation  depends  upoji  the  temperature  at  which  the  modi- 
fication is  effected.  The  lower  the  temperature  (other  things 
being  equal)  of  the  vapor  the  less  the  quantity  of  heat  made 
sensible  by  condensation. 

134.  In  the  tornado  the  temperature  of  the  vapor  of  water  is 
considerably  lower  than  given  in  the  previous  example,  conse- 
quently the  sensible  heat  is  less  when  condensation  takes  place. 
But  the  enormous  mass  of  vapor  condensed  in  part  overcomes 
this  deficiency,  and  the  total  quantity  of  sensible  heat  which 
may  be  experienced  will  be  quite  sufficient  to  produce  uncom- 
fortable sensations. 

135.  With  the  sensation  of  heat  there  appears  to  be  experi- 
enced a  peculiar  difficulty  for  breath.  This  effect  is  probably 
due  to  the  extreme  rarit)'  of  the  air  in  the  vortex  consequent 
upon  the  violent  centrifugal  action  of  the  currents. 

136.  The  peculiar  sensations  of  cold  experienced  in  the  path 
of  the  tornado  may  be  due  to  marked  differences  of  temperature 
between  the  interior  of  the  tornado-cloud  and  the  air  surround- 
ing it.  The  sensations  as  reported  by  observers  appear  to  be 
relative  rather  than  absolute.  Observers  always  first  experience 
a  stifling  heat  and  then  a  chilling  cold.  The  latter  condition 
never  precedes  the  former.  The  cold  is  always  encountered 
just  after  the  period  of  maximum  violence  of  the  storm.  A  cold 
current  sets  in  from  the  west  and  northwest  in  the  wake  of  the 
tornado.  The  temperature  of  this  current  under  ordinar}^  cir- 
cumstances would  not  produce  a  chilling  effect,  but  because  of 
the  abnormal  conditions  in  the  tornado,  the  obsen^er's  first  ex- 
perience places  him  in  decided  contrast  with  that  which  imme- 
diately follows.  The  change  is  similar  to  %vhat  would  be 
experienced  in  passing  from  the  moist,  hot  air  of  a  bath-room 
into  the  cold,  dry  air  of  an  ice-house.  In  either  case  the  ex- 
tremes of  temperature  may  not  be  marked,  but  the  sudden 
change  from  one  to  the  other  produces  a  painful  shock  to  the 
system. 

137.  Electrical  forces  always  act  in  straight  lines,  while  the 
forces  of  the  tornado  may  be  exerted  in  either  straight  lines  or 
in  those  directions  embracing  the  most  complicated  cur\^es. 


167 


Can  any  manifestations  of  electrical  force  twist  the  body  of  a 
hickory  tree  several  times  about  the  same  vertical  or  horizontal 
axis  ? 

138.  We  have  said  that  electrical  manifestations  accompany 
or  attend  the  tornado,  but  do  not  cause  the  storm.  This 
kind  of  electricity  is  called  statical  or  frictional  as  opposed  to 
voltaic  or  current  electricity.  The  latter  is  believed  to  be  the 
only  form  of  electricity  which  will  produce  electrolysis.  Experi- 
ments have  been  made  with  the  electric  spark  in  an  attempt  to 
produce  electrolysis,  but  the  efforts  were  not  successful.  The 
electric  spark  (statical  electricity)  will,  under  certain  circum- 
stances, produce  what  may  be  called  a  dissociation  of  certain 
compound  substances,  but  this  phenomenon  can  not  be  consid- 
ered electrolysis. 

139.  Faraday  estimates  that  the  quantity  of  statical  electricity 
required  to  decompose  one  grain  of  water  is  800,000  times  as 
much  as  would  be  required  to  kill  a  cat.  Expressing  this  force  in 
other  terms,  we  find  that  the  quantity  of  static  electricity  required 
to  decompose  a  grain  of  water  would,  if  it  charged  a  cloud  situ- 
ated at  a  distance  of  3,281  feet  above  the  earth,  exert  an  attractive 
force  between  the  cloud  and  the  earth  beneath  it  of  1,497  tons. 
Suppose  the  area  of  the  above  cloud  to  be  50  by  38  feet,  the 
attractive  force  is  otherwise  expressed  as  one  ton  per  square  foot 
of  surface.  This  illustration  of  comparative  electrical  forces  is 
not  intended  for  one  moment  to  argue  that  these  conditions  ever 
really  exist  in  the  atmosphere.  The  purpose  is  to  show  the 
comparative  electrolytic  properties  of  statical  and  voltaic  electrici- 
ties, and  to  make  evident  the  absurdity  of  reasoning  that  the 
high  temperature  of  the  tornado  vortex  is  due  to  the  electrolysis 
of  atmospheric  vapor. 

140.  In  explaining  the  electrical  origin  of  the  tornado  and 
asserting  that  the  electricity  present  acts  as  usual  between  two 
opposite  polarities,  the  inference  does  not  follow  as  maintained, 
viz.:  That  one  pole  being  given  it  induces  the  opposite  pole  on 
the  nearest  point  of  matter  adjacent  to  it.  This  assumes  that 
the  highest  objects  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  are  subject  to  the 
greatest  electrical  influence  simply  because  they  are  the  highest. 
Now,  it  is  admitted  that  elevation  is  a  decided  advantage  in  the 


i6t 

comparative  influence  of  the  electrical  forces  of  attraction,  but 
without  another  accompaniment  elevation  has  no  superiority. 
The  object,  high  or  low,  must  be  electrically  connected  with  the 
earth.  The  lightest  or  the  most  lofty  of  objects  could  not  be 
moved  from  their  foundations  by  the  most  powerful  electric 
charge  if  they  were  insulated  from  the  earth.  The  principle 
here  involved  is  illustrated  by  that  old  electrical  experiment  of 
Volta's,  by  which  pith  balls  were  made  to  fly  back  and  forth  be- 
tween two  metallic  plates  oppositely  electrified.  The  moment 
the  lower  plate  is  insulated  from  the  earth  the  balls  are  repelled 
from  the  upper  plate  and  remain  stationary  upon  the  lower  one, 
showing  that  the  force  of  attraction  is  lost  the  instant  that  elec- 
trical connection  with  the  earth  is  broken. 

141.  Any  method  of  reasoning  which  assigns  tornado  develop- 
ment to  planetary  influences  is,  equally  with  the  electrical  theory 
of  their  origin,  without  foundation.  We  have  but  to  realize  that 
in  the  formation  of  the  tornado  and  other  local  storms  of  a  sim- 
ilar character  the  entire  action  of  all  the  forces  involved,  except 
the  energy  of  the  sun's  heat,  is  embraced  in  that  portion  of  the 
atmosphere  within  from  two  to  three  miles  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face. Any  influence  emanating  from  the  movements,  conjunc- 
tions, or  other  periodical  mutations  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  dis- 
tant hundreds  of  thousands  and  millions  of  miles,  can  only  reach 
an  infinitesimal  amount,  and  entirely  inappreciable  in  its  effect 
upon  the  atmosphere  to  produce  local  or  general  disturbances, 
especially  near  the  earth. 

142.  It  has  been  asserted  that  the  conditions  which  give  rise 
to  the  formation  of  the  tornado- cloud  result  from  the  effect  upon 
the  atmosphere  of  the  mere  revolution  of  the  planets  in  their 
orbits.  That  circular  movements  in  the  atmosphere  are  propa- 
gated and  continued  by  such  influences.  The  effect  is  likened 
to  that  which  would  result  from  the  whirling  in  different  direc- 
tions in  a  large  vessel  of  water  of  several  globes  attached  to  the 
same  spindle.  Upon  withdrawing  the  globes  after  a  number  of 
revolutions,  the  surface  of  the  water  would  be  found  covered  with 
a  network  of  eddies.  The  inherent  fault  of  this  simile  is  the  fact 
that  while  the  illustration  provides  for  the  circular  movement  of 
the  bodies  within  the  medium  which  is  set  in  motion  to  give  the 


169 


characteristic  whirls  or  eddies,  the  subject  of  illustration,  the 
planets,  perform  their  revolutions,  not  in  the  atmosphere,  the 
medium  to  be  set  in  motion,  but  millions  of  miles  away  from  it 
in  another  medium,  concerning  which  little  is  known.  The 
failure  to  properly  apply  the  method  of  reasoning  by  analogy 
often  leads  the  novice  into  making  the  most  ridiculous  assump- 
tions. It  would  be  more  reasonable  to  assume  that  the  revolu- 
tions of  the  planets  give  rise  to  the  great  disturbances  of  the 
atmosphere,  embracing  extended  regions  of  country,  which  are 
known  on  the  weather-map  as  ''Highs"  and  '*  Lows,"  but  even 
here  the  same  difficulties  operate,  although  not  so  extravagant 
as  in  the  case  of  the  tornado  with  its  narrow  path  of  a  hundred 
yards  or  more. 

143.  Finally,  the  tornado  is  the  result  of  an  accidental  condi- 
tion of  the  atmosphere ;  and,  therefore,  it  cannot  be  due,  as 
many  believe,  to  some  periodical  influence  emanating  from  the 
movement  or  relative  position  of  the  planets,  which  conditions, 
of  course,  recur  with  the  most  exact  regularity.  When  the  ten- 
sion between  the  opposing  currents  of  warm  and  cold  air  sud- 
denly and  unexpectedly  becomes  broken  at  any  point,  centripetal 
action  sets  in  and  the  funnel-shaped  cloud  soon  appears,  not 
through  some  mysterious  and  improbable  agency,  but  by  a  rea- 
sonable and  natural  operation  of  well-known  physical  forces. 

INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  OBSERVING  WIND-STORMS. 

The  following  is  a  full  and  complete  copy  of  the  Tornado  Cir- 
cular No.  I,  New  Series,"  issued  from  the  Signal  Office  at  Wash- 
ington for  the  guidance  of  persons  who  desire  to  aid  in  observing 
wind-storms.  The  entire  circular  is  inserted  here  as  a  thing  of 
great  value.  The  questions  are  classified  under  headings,  which 
briefly  refer  to  the  general  character  of  the  data  desired;  the  de- 
tails being  covered  by  the  questions  themselves.  Persons  mak- 
ing observations  for  the  purpose  of  forwarding  them  to  Wash- 
ington should  number  their  communications  according  to  the 
following  arrangement:  For  example,  "  Wind  Direction  No,  6 
— Northwest,  5:30  A.  M."  Observations  with  as  full  particulars 
as  can  be  collated  should  be  promptly  forwarded  to  the  Chief 
Signal  Officer  of  the  Army,  Washington,  D.  C, 


SUBJECTS  AND  QUESTIONS 

DATE,  TIME,  AND  CHARACTER  OF  STORM. 

1.  Give  the  year,  month,  day  of  month,  and  hour  of  day 
(hour  and  minutes,  and  A.  M.  or  P.  M.)  when  the  storm  oc- 
curred. 

2.  Did  you  have  a  storm  on  the  above  date  ;  and,  if  so,  what 
was  the  nature  of  it,  and  from  what  point  of  the  compass  did  it 
approach  ? 

3.  When  time  of  day  is  asked,  give  the  same  in  hours  and 
minutes,  and  state  whether  it  is  local  or  railroad  time,  and  by 
what  standard,  viz.:  Chicago,  Detroit,  Columbus,  St.  Louis,  etc., 
etc. 

4.  What  time  of  day  did  threatening  appearances  commence, 
in  what  portion  of  the  horizon,  and  at  what  time  were  they  the 
most  decided  ? 

5.  The  time  of  day  when  the  tornado-cloud  passed. 

WIND  DIRECTION. 

1.  The  direction  of  the  wind  while  the  tornado-cloud  was  ap- 
proaching. 

2.  The  direction  of  the  wind  while  the  tornado-cloud  was 
passing. 

3.  The  direction  of  the  wind  after  the  tornado-cloud  passed. 

4.  The  direction  of  the  wind  during  the  forenoon  of  the  day 
and  up  to  the  time  of  the  first  threatening  appearance  in  the 
heavens. 

5.  The  prevailing  direction  of  the  wind  at  this  season  of  the 
year. 

6.  What  was  the  direction  and  force  of  the  wind  when  you 
first  noticed  the  weather  in  the  early  morning  ?  Give  the  hour 
of  observation. 

7.  When  direction  of  wind  is  asked,  the  direction  of  motion  of 
the  air-currents  is  meant,  independent  of  the  course  or  motion 
of  the  tornado-cloud.  Always  give  the  points  of  compass  from 
which  the  wind  comes. 

TEMPERATURE  OBSERVATIONS. 
I.  Was  the  day  unusually  warm  and  sultry  ?    Give  the  maxi- 
mum temperature,  if  possible,  and  state  the  hour  at  which  it 


171 


was  observed,  together  with  the  direction  of  the  wind  and  the 
state  of  the  sky  existing  at  the  time. 

2.  What  was  the  condition  of  the  temperature  after  the  torna- 
do-cloud passed?  Did  the  air  suddenly,  or  gradually,  grow 
colder  ?  Give  the  minimum  temperature  for  that  afternoon  and 
evening,  and  during  the  night,  with  direction  of  the  wind. 

3.  What  had  been  about  the  average  daily  temperature,  also 
the  maximum  and  minimum,  together  with  the  accompanying 
direction  of  the  wind,  humidity,  and  clouds,  for  two  or  three 
days  previous  to  the  occurrence  of  the  tornado  and  for  three 
days  succeeding  its  appearance  ? 

MOTION  OF  TORNADO-CLOUD. 

1.  Describe  the  character  and  motion  of  the  surrounding 
clouds  before,  during,  and  after  the  tornado-cloud  passed. 

2.  Give  the  time  of  day  at  which  the  light  or  dark  irregular 
clouds  surrounding  the  tornado-cloud  were  in  the  greatest  con- 
fusion, and  describe  the  scene. 

3.  If  you  saw  the  tornado-cloud,  describe  or  sketch  it,  and 
note  particularly  any  change  in  motion  or  the  successive  stages 
of  development  during  the  time  of  observation. 

4.  Give  the  direction  of  the  whirl  of  the  tornado-cloud,  as 
against,  or  with,  the  hands  of  a  watch,  face  upward. 

5.  Give  all  the  motions  of  the  tornado-cloud  which  you  ob- 
served, or  which  you  heard  that  others  had  witnessed,  as,  for 
example :  rising  and  falling,  swaying  from  side  to  side,  or  whirl- 
ing about  a  central  axis,  etc.,  etc. 

6.  Describe  minutely  the  manner  in  which  objects  were  car- 
ried inward,  upward,  and  about  in  the  whirling  vortex  of  the 
tornado-cloud ;  how  thrown  outward,  and  from  what  portion  of 
the  cloud. 

7.  Give  the  direction  of  the  course  pursued  by  tfie  tornado- 
cloud  along  its  path  of  destruction  in  your  locality,  as,  for  exam- 
ple :  N.  70°  E.;  E.  30°  N.,  or  E.  20°  S.,  etc.,  etc. 

8.  Did  the  tornado-cloud  remain  in  a  vertical  position  as  it 
traveled  forward,  or  was  the' tail  of  it  inclined ;  in  what  direction, 
and  how  many  degrees  from  the  perpendicular  ? 


172 


g.  Give  an  estimate  of  what  you  consider  the  progressive  ve- 
locity of  the  tornado-cloud;  how  many  miles  per  hour.  Give 
the  data  upon  which  you  make  the  estimate,  and  why  you  be- 
lieve your  estimate  to  be  reliable. 

10.  As  the  tornado-cloud  approached,  from  what  direction 
came  the  wind  you  first  experienced,  whether  against  your 
body  or  against  the  building  within  which  you  were  situated  at 
the  time. 

11.  Try  and  give  an  estimate  of  what  you  consider  the  wind's 
velocity  within  the  central  whirl  of  the  tornado-cloud,  and  also 
the  data  upon  which  you  base  this  estimate. 

12.  In  the  passage  of  the  tornado-cloud  over  a  pond,  lake,  or 
river,  carefully  describe  every  particular  in  the  disturbance  of  the 
water;  how  high  into  the  air  any  portion  of  it  was  carried;  if 
any  fish,  shells,  stones,  or  the  like,  were  carried  out,  and  in 
what  direction.  Also  state  the  exact  position  of  the  person,  or 
persons,  who  witnessed  the  scene. 

13.  Were  bits  of  leaves,  mud,  straw,  grass,  or  the  like,  thrown 
against  your  building  ?  If  so,  state  on  what  particular  portion 
or  portions,  and  whether  apparently  thrown  thereon  with  great 
force.  If  thrown  upon  the  bodies  of  persons  or  animals,  care- 
fully state  the  circumstances. 

FORM  OF  TORNADO-CLOUD. 

1.  How  many  funnel-shaped  clouds  did  you  see?  Describe 
each,  giving  their  relative  sizes,  shapes,  and  positions,  and,  if 
possible,  a  rough  sketch  of  each. 

2.  Describe  the  color  of  the  tornado-cloud ;  its  density ;  how 
and  when  changes  in  color  and  density  occur ;  the  color  and 
density  of  the  bottom  of  the  cloud  as  compared  with  the  top ;  the 
existence  of  light  and  peculiar  fleecy  clouds  over  and  about  the 
upper  portion. 

3.  Give  the  comparative  size  of  top  and  bottom  of  tornado- 
cloud;  note  particularly  and  describe  minutely  any  change  in 
form  when  the  bottom  or  tail  reached  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

4.  In  observations  upon  the  tornado-cloud,  please  note  the 
angular  height  of  the  top  of  the  cloud  from  the  horizon,  that  is, 
above  the  plane  of  the  horizon ;  also  the  horizontal  distance  from 


173 


the  observer  to  the  bottom  of  the  tornado-cloud.  Carefully  esti- 
mate the  angular  height  in  degrees,  and  the  horizontal  distance 
in  yards  or  miles. 

HAIL  OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  If  a  hailstorm,  state  whether  the  hailstones  were  large  or 
small,  of  peculiar  shape,  and  few  or  many  in  number.  Give  ex- 
act size  and  weight  of  some  of  the  largest. 

2.  Did  you  examine  the  interior  of  any  of  the  hailstones,  and 
if  so,  how  were  they  formed,  and  what  did  they  contain  ? 

3.  If  hail  fell  at  intervals  during  the  day,  state  the  times 
of  beginning  and  ending  of  each  precipitation  separately,  to- 
gether with  the  direction  of  the  wind  at  each  occurrence. 

4.  Was  there  any  peculiar  condition  of  the  clouds  at  the  time 
of  the  hail  ?    If  any  strange  feature  was  noticed,  give  details. 

5.  On  which  side  of  the  tornado's  path  (to  the  N.  or  to  the 
S. )  did  the  hailstones  appear  to  fall  in  the  greatest  quantity  ? 

6.  Did  the  hail  fall  before  or  after  (how  long)  the  tornado- 
cloud  passed  ? 

7.  Did  you  notice  any  distinct  peculiarity  in  the  approaching 
or  overhanging  clouds  from  which  the  hail  itself  fell  ?  Did  the 
hailstones  appear  to  drop  from  the  funnel-shaped  cloud,  or  from 
the  surrounding  clouds? 

RAIN  OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  Any  rain,  and  did  it  fall  before  or  after  (how  long)  the  tor- 
nado-cloud passed  ? 

2.  If  any  rain  fell  during  the  hailstorm,  be  careful  to  state 
whether  it  fell  before,  at  the  tune  of,  or  after  the  hail  ceased.  In 
case  of  the  two  extremes,  give  the  interval  in  minutes. 

3.  On  which  side  of  the  tornado's  path  (to  the  N.  or  to  the 
S. )  was  the  rainfall  the  heaviest  .'^ 

4.  If  rain  fell  at  intervals  during  the  day,  state  the  times  of 
beginning  and  ending  of  each  precipitation  separately,  together 
with  the  direction  of  the  wind  at  each  occurrence. 

5.  Any  peculiarity  in  the  size  of  the  rain-drops,  or  in  the 
quantity  which  fell  ? 


174 


ELECTRICAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  Was  thunder  or  lightning  observed,  and  if  so,  in  what  por- 
tion of  the  horizon,  at  what  time  of  the  day,  and  whether  violent 
or  otherwise  ? 

2.  Was  lightning  or  other  manifestation  of  electricity  seen  in 
the  funnel-shaped  tornado-cioud  as  it  approached  or  passed,  or 
in  the  dark,  heavy  clouds  surrounding  it  to  the  N.  and  W.? 
If  so,  describe  the  appearance  minutely. 

3.  Do  you  know  of  any  one  who  made  observations  concern- 
ing the  deflection  of  a  magnetic  needle  during  the  day  of  the 
storm,  especially  while  the  tornado-cloud  was  passing  a  given 
point?  If  so,  send  his  address,  or  give  the  result  of  the  ob- 
servations. 

4.  The  terms  lightning  and  electric  discharge,  as  used  in 
this  circular,  are  synonymous. 

5.  How  can  one  determine  whether  electricity  has  ^/tk influence 
in  aiding  the  development  and  progress  of  the  tornado,  or  is  only 
an  uni^nportant  factor  ? 

6.  Is  there  any  reason  to  suppose  that  the  clouds  approach- 
ing from  opposite  directions,  preceding  the  first  appearance  of 
the  funnel-shaped  cloud,  were  oppositely  electrified  ? 

7.  Did  lightning  tend  to  pass  between  the  approaching  clouds  ? 

8.  Did  the  motion  of  the  approaching  clouds  appear  to  be 
accelerated  at  the  moment  of,  or  immediately  following,  any 
electric  discharge  ? 

9.  Were  electric  discharges  observed  to  take  place  in  the  in- 
itiatory whirl  of  the  approaching  clouds  ? 

10.  Were  electric  discharges  observed  to  take  place  between 
the  cloud-spout  and  the  earth,  while  the  former  was  yet  at  a 
considerable  elevation  in  the  air  ? 

11.  Is  there  any  competent  evidence  to  show  an  increase  of 
electrical  manifestation  upon  the  descent  of  the  cloud-spout  to 
the  earth  ? 

12.  Was  lightning  observed  in  the  heavy  bank  of  clouds 
along  the  western  horizon  after  the  tornado-cloud  had  advanced 
beyond  this  cloud  region  to  the  eastward  1 

13.  Are  electric  discharges  which  take  place  in  the  bank  of 
clouds  along  the  western  horizon  visible  to  an  observer  situated 


175 


to  the  eastward  and  in  advance  of  the  approaching  tornado- 
cloud  ? 

14.  Can  flashes  of  Hghtning  which  issue  from  the  clouds 
along  any  portion  of  the  western  horizon  be  seen  through  any 
portion  of  the  tornado-cloud  ?  What  portion  ?  May  not  the 
flashes  appear  as  if  passing  through  the  tornado-cloud  from  top 
to  bottom,  when  really  they  are  among  distant  clouds  ?  It  is 
important  to  determine  whether  the  flashes  of  lightning,  some- 
times reported  as  appearing  in  the  tornado-cloud,  are  not  the 
result  of  an  optical  illusion. 

15  What  portion  of  the  tornado-cloud  presents  the  lightest 
color  ? 

16.  Cannot  flashes  of  lightning  be  readily  seen  to  descend  to 
the  earth  at  the  right,  left,  and  rear  of  the  tornado-cloud,  but 
evidently  not  emanating  from  it  ? 

17.  Does  the  upper  portion  of  the  tornado-cloud  at  any  time 
present  a  glowing  appearance,  like  the  colors  of  a  brilliant  sun- 
set? 

18.  Does  any  portion  of  the  tornado-cloud  ever  present  the 
appearance  of  sunlight  passing  through  fine  mist  or  rain-drops  ? 

19.  Always  note  the  absence  or  appearance  of  the  sun 
(whether  obscured  by  clouds  or  not)  while  making  observations 
upon  the  tornado-cloud.  Give  the  position  of  the  tornado-cloud 
with  respect  to  the  sun. 

20.  Note  the  condition  of  the  sky  between  the  tornado- cloud 
and  the  horizon  at  the  right,  left,  and  rear — clear,  fair,  or 
cloudy?    Describe  carefully. 

21.  Were  balls  of  fire  "  observed  to  accompany  the  tornado- 
cloud  at  any  stage  of  its  progressive  movement  ?  Did  they  ap- 
pear to  come  from  the  tornado-cloud,  or  surrounding  clouds  ? 
If  from  the  former,  from  what  portion  of  it,  under  what  condi- 
tions, and  with  what  result  ?  Reply  to  this  entire  question  very 
carefully. 

22.  What  effect  had  the  tornado  upon  small  vegetation  and 
the  foliage  of  trees?  How  long  after  the  tornado  passed  before 
there  was  observed  any  brown  or  seared  appearance  of  leaves 
and  stems,  or  any  chan  ge  of  color  on  the  trunks  or  limbs  of 
trees  or  shrubs  where  the  bark  was  broken  or  peeled  off? 


176 


23.  In  the  event  of  death  or  injury  to  any  person  or  animal, 
observe  very  carefully  whether  the  effect  resulted  from  electrical 
discharge  or  the  force  of  the  wind. 

24.  In  the  destruction  or  removal  of  an>  object  within  the 
path  of  the  tornado,  observe  very  carefully  whether  the  effect 
resulted  from  electrical  discharge  or  simply  the  force  of  the 
wind. 

25.  During  the  progress  of  the  tornado  does  the  air  appear  to 
rush  into  the  cloud  vortex  from  all  points  of  the  compass,  or 
does  it  advance  from  only  two  points,  viz.,  northwest  and  south- 
west? This  information  can  probably  be  secured  either  by 
witnessing  the  passage  of  the  tornado-cloud  or  carefully  examin- 
ing the  disposition  of  the  debris  after  the  storm  has  cleared 
away.  Light  winds  occurring  on  one  or  more  sides  of  the  center 
should  be  recorded  as  well  as  the  destructive  winds. 

26.  Observe  whether  the  debris  in  the  tornado's  path  appears 
to  have  been  thrown  down  and  carried  about  by  the  action  of  a 
continuous  wind,  or  was  the  distribution  the  result  of  separate 
winds,  operating  successively  in  a  direction  veering  around 
from  right  to  left. 

27.  In  the  incipient  stages  of  the  cloud-spout  does  the  air  ap- 
pear to  rush  in  from  all  sides  towards  the  point  of  inception,  or 
does  the  air  come  principally  from  the  northwest  2ltA  southwest? 
This  information  can  probably  be  secured  by  observing  the 
formation  of  clouds  and  their  directions  of  movement,  carefully 
distinguishing  between  the  several  strata. 

28.  If  possible,  carefully  determine  whether  the  energy  of  the 
tornado  increases  or  gradually  diminishes  after  it  has  been  per- 
fectly formed.  To  ascertain  the  facts  in  this  case  it  will  proba- 
bly be  necessary  to  make  an  examination  embracing  the  entire 
path  of  the  tornado,  or  the  larger  portion  of  it. 

29.  Can  the  roaring,  which  always  accompanies  the  tornado- 
cloud  in  its  passage  over  the  country,  be  readily  distinguished 
from  ordinary  thunder  ?  Is  thunder  ever  distinctly  heard  as 
emanating  directly  from  the  tornado-cloud  ? 

30.  Carefully  examine  buildings,  trees,  and  other  objects 
which  have  been  acted  upon  with  marked  severity  by  the  tor- 
nado, and  ascertain  if  there  is  good  evidence  of  electrical  action. 


177 


3 1 .  Try  and  secure  some  observations  upon  the  variability  of 
atmospheric  electricity  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  tornado's 
path.  What  effect  was  observed  in  telegraph  offices?  How 
were  the  telegraph  lines  affected?  To  what  extent  was  the 
magnetic  needle  affected  ? 

32.  The  effects  of  lightning  are  :  rupturing  and  scattering  of 
imperfectly  conducting  substances  and  the  inflaming  of  those 
which  are  combustible  ;  heating,  reddening,  melting,  and  vola- 
tilizing of  metals ;  the  production  of  shocks  more  or  less  severe 
and  often  fatal  to  the  lives  of  men  and  animals,  and  the  produc- 
tion of  ozone,  causing  a  sulphurous  odor. 

In  conducting  an  examination  over  any  portion  of  the  tor- 
nado's path,  carefully  determine  whether  any  of  the  above  ef- 
fects are  present. 

33.  Report  all  damaging  effects  by  lightning,  whether  con- 
nected with  a  tornado  or  attendant  upon  some  general  storm. 
Describe  the  conditions  of  each  case  prior  to  the  damage  and 
then  follow  these  facts  by  carefully  statmg  all  the  particulars  of 
injury.  Make  a  personal  examination  of  each  case  when  prac- 
ticable. State  whether  the  object  damaged  was  protected  from 
injury  by  lightning  in  any  manner  and  how.  Note  the  disposi- 
tion of  debris  about  the  object  damaged,  or  surrounding  its  lo- 
cation^ if  entirely  destroyed. 

34.  Of  a  building  or  tree,  note  its  height  above  the  ground 
and  its  position  respecting  other  objects. 

35.  Of  persons  or  animals,  describe  their  location  at  the  time 
of  damage  with  respect  to  other  objects,  and  in  case  of  persons, 
the  character  and  condition  of  their  clothing. 

36.  Give  the  hour  of  day  when  damage  occurred.  Send 
newspaper  items  regarding  the  damage. 

METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  If  no  tornado  occurred  at  or  near  your  station,  please  state 
whether  you  experienced  any  sort  of  a  storm,  and  give  the  nat- 
ure of  it. 

2.  Did  you  hear  a  roaring  noise  on  the  approach  of  the  storm, 
and  if  so,  state  in  what  direction,  the  intensity,  or  any  accompa- 
nying peculiarity  ? 


178 


3.  Did  you  notice  any  peculiar  odor  in  the  atmosphere  during 
the  passage  of  the  tornado-cloud,  and  what  was  it  like  ? 

4.  Do  you  know  any  one  who  made  observations  on  the  pres- 
ence of  ozone  in  the  atmosphere  on  the  day  of  the  storm?  If  so, 
send  his  address  or  give  the  result  of  his  observations. 

5.  What  was  the  condition  of  the  sky  when  you  made  your 
first  observation  in  the  morning  ?  Was  it  cloudy,  three-fourths 
cloudy,  one-half  cloudy,  one-fourth  cloudy,  or  entirely  clear? 

6.  What  was  the  direction,  or  directions,  in  which  the  clouds 
were  moving  at  the  time  of  your  first  observation  ? 

7.  What  time  of  day  did  it  commence  to  cloud  up,  and  in 
what  quarter  of  the  heavens  ? 

8.  Describe  the  character  of  the  clouds  when  the  first  threat- 
ening appearances  began. 

9.  Give  the  time  of  day,  the  quarter  of  the  heavens,  and  the 
character  of  each  formation,  if  there  were  frequent  and  sudden 
changes  in  the  development  or  grouping  of  the  clouds. 

10.  How  many  days  previous  did  you  notice  any  indications  of 
an  approaching  storm,  and  what  were  those  indications  ? 

11.  Did  you  observe  the  form  of  cloud  commonly  called 
mare's  tails  "  (cirrus) ;  in  what  part  of  the  heavens  and  how 

many  days  previous  ? 

12.  In  what  quarter  of  the  heavens  did  the  passing  storm  seem 
to  be  the  heaviest  ? 

13.  What  time  of  the  day  did  the  first  threatening  appearances 
commence,  and  in  what  portion  of  the  heavens  ? 

14.  How  did  the  day  open? 

15.  Did  the  clouds  gradually  thicken  on  this  day,  or  was 
there  a  sudden  and  portentous  banking  up  of  them  in  the  W. 
during  the  afternoon  ? 

16.  Did  the  clouds  appear  to  gather  near  the  earth  and  extend 
in  irregular  forms  to  great  heights,  or  was  there  a  heavy,  dark 
mass,  with  comparatively  regular  outlines,  hanging  low  down  in 
the  W.  ? 

17.  What  time  during  the  day,  and  in  what  portion  of  the 
heavens,  did  you  notice  small  light  or  dark  clouds,  if  any,  driven 
swiftly  by  the  wind?  Tell  how  they  moved,  from  what  direction 
or  directions  they  came,  and  where  they  seemed  to  concentrate. 


179 


1 8.  In  describing  clouds,  especially  where  they  are  peculiar  or 
portentous  in  appearance,  aside  from  indicating  character  or  for- 
mation, give  the  most  striking  colors  and  state  how  they  blended 
with  each  other. 

19.  In  the  event  of  the  occurrence  of  any  storm,  state  whether 
it  passed  your  location  by  either  the  N.  or  S.  point,  or  directly 
overhead. 

20.  What  time  of  the  day  did  you  notice  any  decided  change 
in  the  temperature,  and  what  was  the  extent  of  that  change  ? 

21.  In  making  a  statement  concerning  any  feature  of- the 
weather  during  the  day,  be  careful  to  give  the  hour  at  which  the 
condition  referred  to  was  observed. 

METEOROLOGICAL  INSTRUMENTS. 

I.  If  you,  or  any  of  your  neighbors,  have  meteorological  in- 
struments, give  the  readings  of  the  thermometer  and  barometer, 
direction  of  the  wind,  and  the  hour  of  observation,  for  two  days 
before,  on  the  day  of  the  storm,  and  for  two  days  thereafter. 

DRAWINGS,  SKETCHES,  AND  PHOTOGRAPHS. 

1.  If  possible,  try  to  represent  the  tornado-cloud  by  a  rough 
sketch,  as  also  the  dark  and  irregular  clouds  surrounding  it. 

2.  Give  the  direction  and  distance  from  your  house  to  your 
various  farm  buildings,  if  possible  drawing  a  plan  of  the  same 
and  indicating  the  points  of  the  compass.  This  plan  need  only 
be  a  rough  sketch. 

3.  Give  the  dimensions  of  your  buildings,  and  state  the  char- 
acter of  each  as  to  whether  they  are  log,  frame,  stone,  or  brick, 
and  weak  or  strong. 

4.  In  drawing  a  plan  of  your  buildings,  indicate  the  position 
of  the  tornado's  path  with  respect  to  each  of  them  and  the  direc- 
tion in  which  the  tornado-cloud  moved. 

5.  If  possible,  please  furnish  photographs,  sketches,  or  printed 
cuts  representing  the  tornado-cloud  or  some  evidence  of  its  de- 
structive power.  They  are  very  desirable.  If  you  cannot  furnish 
them,  perhaps  you  know  of  some  one  who  can.  This  office  is 
desirous  of  obtaining  sketches  of  clouds,  however  rough  and  im- 
perfect. If  in  any  way  you  can  readily  depict  upon  paper  the  un  • 
roofing,  overturning,  or  crushing  of  a  building,  the  destruction 


i8o 


of  an  orchard,  uprooted  or  tsvisted  trees,  or  the  falhng  or  twisting 
of  timber  as  the  tornado-cloud  swept  through  the  forest,  it  will 
be  valuable.  Perhaps  you  know  of  some  one  who  witnessed  these 
scenes,  or  part  of  them,  and  who  would  be  willing  to  illustrate 
them. 

6.  Sketches  of  clouds  of  peculiar  destructive  effects,  of  hail- 
stones, of  anything  that  will  illustrate  any  distinguishing  feature 
of  the  storm's  violence,  are  very  desirable. 

GENERAL  DESTRUCTION  TO  PROPERTY. 

1.  How  far,  and  in  what  direction,  are  you  situated  from  the 
center  of  the  path  of  destruction  ? 

2.  Give  the  maximum  and  minimum  width,  in  yards  or  rods, 
of  the  path  of  destruction  in  your  vicinity,  and  state,  if  you  can, 
whether  in  examining  that  path  it  was  found  that  on  the  S.  side 
of  the  center  the  sweep  of  destruction  was  broader  and  more  ir- 
regular than  on  the  X.  side,  or  if  any  other  difference  existed 
between  the  two  sides. 

3.  In  giving  your  distance  from  the  center  of  the  path  of  de- 
struction, indicate  the  same  in  miles  and  parts  of  miles  or  rods, 
stating  the  amount  in  northing  and  easting,  northing  and  west- 
ing, southing  and  easting,  or  southing  and  westing,  estimated 
along  section  or  township  lines. 

4.  In  all  descriptions  of  the  tornado's  path,  In  gi\'ing  any  par- 
ticular destruction  in  it,  or  in  detailing  your  experience  while  the 
tornado-cloud  was  passing,  be  careful  to  state  on  which  side  of 
the  center  (to  the  N.  or  to  the  S.,  and  how  far)  the  damage  oc- 
curred, or  you  were  situated  while  a  witness  of  the  storm. 

5.  In  the  destruction  of  any  building,  whether  unroofed,  over- 
turned, moved  from  the  foundation,  racked,  or  othen^ise  dam- 
aged, be  very  careful  to  state  how  the  destructive  force  operated. 
Did  the  wind  or  tornado-cloud,  or  whatever  you  may  term  the  force, 
cause  the  damage  \i\  piilli?ig^  drdu'ing,  or  ^//ri'//^^  the  building, 
or  any  portion  of  it,  inward  to  the  center  or  outward  from  the  cen- 
ter of  the  storm's  path  ?  Apply  this  same  question  to  the  puUmg 
of  fence-posts,  uprooting  trees,  moving  of  machiner}-,  or  other 
heavy-  objects  or  animals.  Did  the  destructive  force  operate  as 
an  ordinary-  wind  in  any  sense,  whether  such  wind  be  gentle  or 


i8i 

violent ;  or,  rather,  was  this  force  some  mysterious,  irresistible 
power,  impelUng  an  object  (no  matter  how  large  or  weighty)  to 
move,  as  if  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  in  front  of  it,  or  round 
about  it,  suddenly  gave  way,  without  your  knowing  how?  Did 
buildings  suddenly  seem  to  totter ;  trees  in  an  instant  bend  to 
the  ground;  the  pressure  of  the  air  against  your  body  give 
way  all  at  once,  or  small  objects  move  swiftly  into  the  air  or 
over  the  ground,  and  yet  all  this  happen  without  apparently  any 
wijtd?  Take  great  care  in  giving  facts  concerning  this  point. 

6.  Give  an  estimate  of  the  number  and  kind  of  buildings  de- 
stroyed. 

7.  Give  a  similar  estimate  of  the  total  valuation  of  property 
of  all  kinds  destroyed. 

8.  Give  the  length  and  width  of  the  tornado's  path  which 
passed  through  your  section  of  the  State. 

9.  Give  the  position  of  your  house  with  respect  to  the  nearest 
post-office,  indicating  the  same  in  miles  and  parts  of  miles  or 
rods ;  state  the  distance  in  northing  and  easting,  northing  and 
westing,  southing  and  easting,  and  southing  and  westing,  esti- 
mated along  section  and  township  lines. 

10.  State  in  detail  and  separately  the  damage  to  each  build- 
ing; what  portion  or  portions  were  taken  away  or  injured ;  how 
5ar  and  in  what  direction  they  were  moved  bodily  ;  what  portion 
of  each  was  first  struck  by  the  wind,  and  how  far  and  in  what  direc- 
tion the  debris  was  carried.  Be  very  careful  to  give  the  exact 
position  and  peculiarities  of  structure  of  the  buildings  which  were 
not  damaged,  although  standing  near  those  which  were  destroyed. 

11.  In  the  damage  or  destruction  of  each  or  any  building, 
state  particularly  how  far  and  in  what  direction  any  portion  of 
them  was  carried  a  considerable  distance. 

12.  If  any  object  was  carried  a  long  distance  by  the  force  of  the 
wind,  state  where  and  what  it  came  from ;  its  dimensions ;  its 
shape ;  probable  height  to  which  transported  in  the  air ;  whether 
driven  into  the  ground  or  not,  how  far  and  into  what  kind  of 
earth. 

13.  State  whether  articles  of  clothing,  fowls,  or  animals  were 
carried  into  the  air,  to  what  height,  to  what  horizontal  distance, 
and  in  what  direction. 


l82 


14.  Give  detailed  destruction  of  furniture  contained  in  the 
house  and  of  farming  implements  in  and  about  the  barns. 

15.  Be  particular  to  note  any  evidence  of  the  wind's  extreme 
violence,  as  in  the  lifting  of  heavy  objects ;  the  twisting  of  trees 
or  heavy  pieces  of  timber  f  puUing  up  of  fence-posts  ;  removing 
heavy  stones,  etc.,  etc. 

16.  With  regard  to  destruction  in  orchards,  among  shade- 
trees,  and  in  forests,  be  particular  to  give  the  direction  in  which 
the  trees  lie ;  how  they  lie  on  the  two  sides  with  regard  to  each 
other  and  to  the  center  of  the  path  of  destruction ;  any  special 
acts  of  violence  in  the  twisting,  uprooting,  or  breaking  off  of 
heavy  timber ;  give  circumference  of  large  trees,  height  above 
ground  where  broken  off,  and  dimensions  of  earth  and  roots 
where  notably  large  trees  were  overthrown. 

17.  In  general,  when  giving  the  position  of  any  person  or  thmg 
with  regard  to  the  center  of  the  path  of  destruction,  state  the 
distance  in  feet  or  rods,  and  the  direction,  as  N.  or  S. 

18.  Give  the  maximum  and  minimum  width,  in  yards  or  rods, 
of  the  path  of  destruction  in  your  locality. 

19.  Did  you  notice  any  peculiarity  with  the  manner  in  which 
small  objects  were  suddenly  removed  from  around  about  build- 
ings, as  if  sucked  in  by  the  advancing  cloud  ? 

20.  Did  you  notice  any  peculiarity  in  the  falling  of  trees  as  tne 
tornado-cloud  advanced  upon  them  ?  Were  they  whipped  about 
and  bent  to  and  fro  as  in  a  heavy  wind,  or  were  they  drawn 
steadily  inward  toward  the  center  on  both  sides,  as  if  by  some 
mysterious  but  irresistible  force  ? 

21.  How  many  rods  of  fencing  (stating  kind)  did  you  have 
blown  down;  in  what  direction  were  the  N.  and  S.  fences  car- 
ried ;  what  was  the  direction  in  which  the  E.  and  W.  fences  were 
carried  ? 

22.  Give  an  estimate  m  money  value  of  the  loss  to  your  prop- 
erty occasioned  by  the  tornado,  the  number  of  acres  of  timber 
you  had  destroyed,  and  the  number  of  fruit-trees  you  had  up- 
rooted or  broken  off. 

23.  Be  particular  to  give  the  exact  position,  also  the  dimen- 
sions and  probable  strength  and  weight,  of  small  objects  which 


i83 


were  not  moved  from  about  large  buildings,  although  the  latter 
were  entirely  destroyed. 

24.  In  examining  the  path  of  destruction,  did  you  find  any 
difference  between  the  N.  and  S.  sides  of  it  ?  Which  side  was  the 
widest ;  which  the  cleanest  cut ;  which  the  most  irregular  and 
jagged  along  its  outer  edge ;  on  which  side  were  narrow  paths  of 
destruction  cut  inward  toward  the  center  ? 

25.  In  describing  the  path  of  destruction,  be  careful  to  note 
where  the  tornado-cloud  left  the  ground,  where  it  again  de- 
scended, the  length  of  the  interval,  and  the  topography  of  the 
earth  at  the  points  of  ascension  and  descension.  Also  state 
whether  the  hail  and  rain  continued  to  fall  after  the  tornado- 
cloud  rose  from  the  earth  and  disappeared  in  the  overhanging 
clouds. 

26.  Estimate  the  time  in  minutes  or  seconds  during  which  the 
tornado-cloud  was  committing  the  destruction  at  your  buildings 
or  in  passing  them  at  a  safe  distance. 

27.  In  the  destruction  of  your  buildings,  did  you  notice  any- 
thing in  the  disposition  of  the  debris  after  the  tornado-cloud 
passed  that  would  indicate  the  effect  of  an  explosion,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, the  sides  and  the  ends  of  a  building  being  thrown  out- 
ward and  the  roof  carried  off  or  let  down  upon  the  floor  ? 

28.  Where  trees  were  overturned  and  wrenched  or  twisted  by 
the  force  of  the  wind,  describe  minutely  how  and  in  what  direc- 
tion the  twist  runs — that  is,  its  direction,  as  with  or  against  the 
hands  of  a  watch.  Perhaps  you  can  compare  it  with  the  bit  of 
an  augur  or  indicate  the  same  by  a  rough  pencil  sketch.  Also 
state  what  portion  or  portions  of  the  tree  were  twisted,  and  what 
the  kind  of  timber  in  the  case  of  each  tree  so  affected. 

29.  Observe  carefully  where  the  tornado-cloud  passed  through 
forests,  and  state  on  which  side  of  the  tornado's  path  (to  the  N. 
or  S.)  the  trees  were  broken  off  at  a  considerable  height 
above  the  ground;  the  maximum  and  minimum  height;  gener- 
al size  of  trees  so  affected;  kind  of  timber,  and  whether  broken 
square  off  or  twisted.  Try  and  illustrate  the  path  through  the 
timber  by  a  pencil  sketch  showing  the  various  directions  of  the 
prostrated  trees.    Indicate  the  points  of  compass. 


i84 

INJURY  TO  PEOPLE  AND  ANIMALS. 

1.  State  the  number,  kind,  and  in  what  manner,  stock  were 
killed  or  injured,  and  whether  at  the  time  of  the  storm  they  were 
in  or  without  buildings.  Also  narrate  any  miraculous  escapes  of 
hfe. 

2.  With  respect  to  your  family,  give  the  whereabouts  and  con- 
dition of  each  person  on  the  approach  of  the  tornado,  and  also 
after  the  tornado-cloud  passed.  Give  age  and  sex  of  each  per- 
son, and  particularize  the  character  and  extent  of  injuries  to  each. 
State  very  carefully  the  distance  and  direction  in  which  any  of 
the  persons  were  carried,  and  also  narrate  any  miraculous  es- 
capes of  life. 

3.  In  describing  the  injury  to  any  person,  animal,  or  object, 
never  fail  to  give  the  distance  and  direction  of  such  person,  ani- 
mal, or  object  from  the  center  of  the  path  of  destruction  at  the 
time  the  tornado-cloud  passed. 

4.  Estimate  the  number  of  persons  killed  and  wounded  along 
the  entire  path  of  the  storm. 

5.  Give  a  similar  estimate  of  the  number  and  kind  of  animals 
killed  or  injured. 

WIND  FORCE  AND  VELOCITY. 

I.  To  indicate  the  force  of  the  wind,  use  the  following  scale, 
expressing  the  velocity  in  miles  per  hour,  if  you  have  an  ane- 
mometer; or  if  not,  estimate  the  same  by  employing  the  appro- 


priate terms  here  given. 

0  Calm. 

1  to  2  miles  per  hour  Light  wind. 

3  to  5  miles  per  hour  Geutle  wind. 

6  to  14  mUes  per  hour  Fresh  wind. 

15  to  24  miles  per  hour  Brisk  wind. 

25  to  39  miles  per  hour  High  wind. 

40  to  59  miles  per  hour  Gale. 

60  to  79  miles  per  hour  Storm. 

80  miles  per  hour  and  above  Huiricane. 


2.  Where  it  occurs  that  a  heavy  body  has  been  transported  by 
the  force  of  the  wind,  please  give  weight,  dimensions,  and  form ; 
also  distance  carried. 

3.  What  was  tiie  highest  velocity  of  the  wind  in  miles  per 
hour,  and  the  direction  from  which  it  came  ?  Approximate  the 
velocity  \i  you  can  do  no  better. 


i85 


4.  What  was  the  time  of  day  when  the  maximum  velocity  oc- 
curred. 

5.  Can  you  give  the  temperature  at  the  time  the  highest  wind 
velocity  occurred  ?    If  not,  say  whether  it  was  warm  or  cold. 

6.  In  the  event  of  any  storm  whatever,  give  the  direction  and 
force  of  the  wind  while  the  storm  was  approaching,  while  the 
storm  was  passing,  and  after  the  storm  passed.  If  a  number  of 
storms  occurred  on  this  day,  give  particulars  of  each. 

7.  At  what  tune,  or  times,  of  the  day  did  you  notice  any  fresh- 
ening of  the  wind,  and  what  was  the  direction  at  each  occur- 
rence ? 

8.  It  is  both  a  matter  of  great  interest  and  much  value  to  de- 
termine high-wind  velocities  such  as  are  common  to  the  violence 
of  the  tornado.  The  important  question  involved  is  the  relation 
of  velocity  to  pressure.  This  relation  varies  among  other  things 
with  the  altitude  above  the  earth's  surface,  the  form  and  size  of 
surface  of  impact,  and  the  elements  of  friction.  Experiments 
have  been  made  with  square  and  spherical  surfaces  of  very  small 
dimensions,  giving  certain  results, which  for  purposes  of  applica- 
tion have  been  expressed  in  the  language  of  simple  formulas. 
For  surfaces  of  large  extent  application  of  these  formulas  will  give 
approximate  results,  but  the  error  for  ordinary  purposes  may  be 
ignored. 

For  square  surfaces  at  the  earth's  surface  :  — 
P  =  (0.0027  A  V^). 

P  =  pressure  of  the  air  in  pounds  per  square  foot. 

0.0027  is  the  constant  determined,  theoretically. 
A  =  the  area  in  square  feet  of  the  surface  against  which  the 
wind  blows. 

V  =  the  velocity  of  the  wind  in  miles  per  hour. 
For  square  surfaces  at  any  altitude  :  — 

P=  0.0027  A  V^^^^/_^L/, 

The  terms  of  this  expression  have  the  meaning  as  given  in  the 

p 

first  formula,  except  the  fraction   which  is  explained  as 

follows :  — 

P  =  the  pressure  at  the  upper  station. 


i86 


P(,  =  the  pressure  (standard)  at  sea-level  or  lower  station. 

I  +  L  /  =  I  -h  0.003665  t,  /  being  the  temperature  of  the  air 
at  the  .time  of  observation,  and  0.003665  being  the  co-efficient  of 
the  expansion  of  air  for  one  degree  at  a  constant  temperature 
and  pressure. 

All  measurements  of  surfaces  should  be  made  with  the  utmost 
care.  Wherever  the  object  acted  upon  is  not  placed  at  right 
angles  to  the  direction  of  the  wind,  the  exception  should  be  noted 
and  the  angle  measured  and  reported.  In  cases  where  stone 
shafts  *are  broken  off  by  the  force  of  the  wind,  all  of  the  circum- 
stances should  be  carefully  described.  Note  particularly  if  the 
broken  surfaces  are  chipped,  and  if  so,  to  what  extent. 

The  following  table  furnishes  the  means  of  comparmg  pounds 
pressure  per  square  foot  with  velocity  in  miles  per  hour  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  terms  of  the  formula  previously  given. 
P  =  .003  A  V^;  assume  A  =  i  sq.  ft. 


Miles  per  Hour. 


Units. 


Tens 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

Miles 

Miles 

Miles 

Miles 

Miles 

Miles 

Miles 

Miles 

Miles 

Miles 

0 

0 

18 

26 

32 

37 

41 

45 

48 

52 

55 

1 

58 

61 

63 

66 

68 

71 

73 

75 

77 

80 

2 

82 

84 

86 

88 

89 

91 

93 

95 

97 

98 

3 

100 

102 

103 

105 

106 

108 

109 

111 

113 

114 

4 

117 

117 

118 

120 

121 

123 

124 

125 

126 

128 

5 

129 

PAST  TORNADOES  OR  "WINDFALLS." 

1.  If  you  recall  the  occurrence,  in  times  past,  of  any  violent 
hailstorm  in  your  State,  give  the  place,  year,  month,  day  of 
month,  hour  of  day,  direction  of  the  storm,  maximum  and  min- 
imum width  of  path  in  rods  or  miles,  size  and  shape  of  hailstones, 
and  a  narration  of  the  destructive  effects. 

2.  If  you  recall  the  occurrence,  in  times  past,  of  any  other 
tornado  in  your  State,  give  year,  month,  day  of  month,  hour  of 
day,  the  direction  of  the  course  of  the  path  of  destruction  as  pur- 
sued by  the  tornado-cloud,  its  length  in  miles,  average  width  of 
destructive  path  in  yards  or  rods,  maximum  width,  minimum 


i87 

width,  and,  if  possible,  the  hour  of  beginning  and  hour  of  disap- 
pearing of  the  tornado-cloud. 

3.  The  following  questions  relate  to  old  land  marks 
through  the  forests,  well  known  by  the  name  of  windfalls." 
In  early  times violent  local  storms  of  wind,  rain,  and  hail 
swept  over  portions  of  newly  settled  country,  marking  their  path- 
way by  fallen  timber,  which  in  the  heavy  forests  was  cut  down 
in  swathes  or  lanes,  narrow  but  well  defined.  You  are  invited  to 
furnish  such  information  as  you  can  conveniently  concerning 
this  subject.  It  is  not  presumed  that  any  one  person  will  be  able 
to  answer  every  question  propounded.  Dates  are  especially  im- 
portant, but  it  is  realized  that  to  authenticate  their  accuracy  will, 
in  many  cases,  be  difficult.  Always  furnish  dates  when  any  are 
reported,  even  though  doubtful,  and  note  the  doubt.  Perhaps 
you  can  associate  the  occurrence  of  the  storm  with  some  prom- 
inent event  in  the  history  of  county  or  State,  and  thereby  re- 
move obscurity  concerning  the  date.  Some  of  the  questions 
call  for  data  which  anticipate  the  examination  of  records  :  — 

QUESTIONS. 

4.  Date  of  storm  :  year,  month,  day  of  month,  and  time  of 
day. 

5.  Location  ot  storm's  path:  give  distance  in  miles  and  frac- 
tions of  a  mile  to  the  nearest  post-office  or  county  court-house. 

6.  Direction  of  storm's  path  :  by  points  of  compass,  expressed 
in  degrees,  if  possible. 

7.  Width  of  storm's  path :  average  width  in  rods  or  yards. 

8.  Length  of  storm's  path  in  miles  and  fractions  of  a  mile. 

9.  Character  of  timber  through  which  the  storm  passed,  and 
the  approximate  amount  of  destruction. 

10.  Describe  the  disposition  of  the  debris  in  the  path  of  the 
storm.  How  was  it  disposed  witl^  reference  to  the  north  and 
south  sides  of  the  path  ? 

11.  Was  the  storm  accompanied  by  an  unusual  roaring  noise  ? 
Describe  it. 

12.  Any  hail  or  rain  ?  Describe  the  character  of  the  precipi- 
tation. 

13.  Describe  the  form  of  the  storm-cloud  and  its  peculiar  mo- 
tions, especially  any  motion  about  its  axis. 


i88 

14.  Was  there  any  display  of  electricity  accompanying  the 
storm  ?    Describe  fully,  and  note  any  destruction  by  this  force. 

15.  Was  the  day  of  the  storm  unusual  with  respect  to  temper- 
ature, variability  of  wind  direction,  humidity,  and  cloud  forma- 
tion ? 

16.  What  were  the  general  atmospheric  conditions  for  the 
several  days  preceding  and  succeeding  the  day  of  the  storm  ? 

17.  Was  there  any  unusual  odor  observed  in  the  atmosphere 
on  the  day  of  the  storm  ?    Describe  it. 

18.  Report  any  loss  of  life  and  the  destruction  of  buildings. 

19.  Furnish  authentic  record  (written  or  published)  of  storm 
when  possible. 

20.  For  how  long  a  period  did  evidences  of  the  storm  remain  ? 

21.  What  speculations  have  been  indulged  in  concerning  the 
nature  of  '^windfalls,"  and  the  causes  which  resulted  in  the  for- 
mation of  such  paths  of  destruction  ? 

22.  In  the  event  of  copying  data  from  permanent  records 
(books,  newspaper  files,  etc.),  give  name  of  publication,  volume, 
page,  and  date  of  issue. 

23.  Enumerate  and  describe  particular  and  peculiar  evidences 
of  the  storm's  violence,  such  as  :  objects  carried  long  distances ; 
scars  upon  trees  or  other  objects ;  bowlders  moved  from  their 
beds ;  trees  torn  from  the  earth  or  twisted  off  near  the  ground ; 
pieces  of  timber  imbedded  in  trees  or  stumps,  or  in  the  earth, 
etc.,  etc. 

24.  Furnish  post-office  address  of  any  person  who  may  be  pos- 
sessed of  information  concerning  "windfalls." 

25.  Do  not  fail  to  furnish  any  clue,  however  slight,  which 
may  eventually  lead  to  a  discovery  of  the  complete  record  of  a 
"windfall." 

MISCELLANEOUS  QUESTIONS. 

1.  If  not  individually  prepared  to  answer  any  or  all  of  the 
above  questions,  please  call  to  your  aid  such  persons  as  may,  in 
your  judgment,  be  able  to  render  you  assistance. 

2.  Send  any  newspaper  article  concerning  this  storm  or  others 
which  have  occurred  during  this  season. 

3.  Give  name  and  address  of  any  one  in  your  State  who  is  in 
the  habit  of  keeping  a  meteorological  record. 


i89 

4.  If  possible,  try  and  secure  the  co-operation  of  some  intelli- 
gent person,  who,  at  the  time  of  its  occurrence,  was  situated 
either  in  the  path  of  the  tornado  or  on  the  outer  edge  of  it,  and 
who  will  be  willing  to  furnish  a  narrative  of  the  result  of  his  ob- 
servations. 

GENERAL    INSTRUCTIONS    TO  VOLUNTARY 
TORNADO  REPORTERS. 

1.  The  following  instructions  are  issued  for  the  specific  ob- 
servance of  voluntary  Tornado  Reporters  for  the  Signal  Service : 

2.  Report  the  occurrence  of  all  local  wind-storms. 

3.  Reports  are  to  be  rendered  in  accordance  with  the  terms 
of  this  circular. 

4.  All  reports  should  be  rendered  as  soon  as  possible  after  the 
occurrence  of  a  storm. 

5.  No  instruments  are  absolutely  needed  but  the  wind- vane 
and  the  thermometer.  This  office  can  furnish  a  standard  ther- 
mometer (compared  and  corrected)  at  cost.  An  ordinary 
thermometer  which  can  be  procured  in  any  village,  at  small 
cost,  will  have  to  answer  if  a  standard  instrument  cannot  be 
purchased. 

6.  A  price-list  of  standard  meteorological  instruments,  appa- 
ratus, text-books,  forms,  and  publications  is  furnished  to  all 
Reporters  in  Tornado  Circular  No.  VI. 

7.  The  back  of  Tornado  Circular  No.  V.  (new  series)  indicates 
the  character  of  the  observations  to  be  taken  and  recorded. 

8.  Whenever,  in  the  judgment  of  the  Reporter,  the  atmos- 
pheric conditions  at  his  station  are  such  as  to  portend  a  violent 
storm,  he  should  immediately  commence  observations  and  record 
them  on  back  of  Tornado  Circular  No.  V.  (new  series). 

9.  The  only  observations  imperatively  necessary  are  tempera- 
ture, wind  direction,  and  clouds.  Humidity  is  desirable,  but  an 
additional  thermometer  of  standard  pattern  (to  form  the  hy- 
grometer) would  be  required. 

10.  For  observations  on  wind  direction  a  wind- vane  can  be 
furnished  by  this  office  at  cost,  but  it  is  rather  expensive.  In 
lieu  of  this,  it  is  sufficient  to  erect  a  cheap  vane  upon  some 


igo 


prominent  structure  near  at  hand,  where  the  instrument  will  not 
be  affected  in  its  indications  by  surrounding  objects.  It  is  pre- 
sumed, however,  that  Reporters  will  not  need  to  resort  to  this 
expense,  as  at  every  station  suitable  wind  vanes  will  very  likely 
be  found,  either  upon  residences  or  public  buildings,  that  will 
answer  every  purpose. 

11.  Cloud  directions  must  be  observed  independently  of  the 
wind-vane.  It  will  require  some  experience  to  observe  these 
directions  accurately.  There  may  be  instances  in  unusual  storms 
where  three  or  more  strata  of  clouds  will  be  found  coursing  in  as 
many  different  directions.  It  is  very  important  to  distinguish 
the  various  directions,  and  describe  the  character  of  the  clouds 
in  each  current.  The  directions  are  best  observed  by  comparing 
the  clouds  with  some  fixed  object  above  the  observer,  such  as  a 
distant  steeple  or  tree-top,  or  the  cornice  cf  a  building. 

12.  The  wind  is  an  important  element  in  tornado  investiga- 
tion. Each  Reporter  is  requested  to  use  the  best  means  at  hand 
for  ascertaining  the  force  of  the  wind  in  any  particular  instance, 
and  clearly  state  the  methods  by  which  his  results  were  derived. 
The  strength  of  the  wind  is  expressed  in  two  ways — either  (a) 
by  descriptive  terms,  such  as  light,  gale,  hurricane,  etc.,  see  the 
tables  of  terms  of  this  circular,  or  (d)  numerically,  by  one  of  two 
methods:  (i)  the  force  or  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  foot; 
(2)  the  velocity  in  miles  per  hour.  These  numerical  methods 
imply  the  use  of  anemometers,  but  in  no  case  should  the  ob- 
server omit  the  descriptive  terms.  Observers  who  experience 
the  very  destructive  winds  of  the  tornado's  vortex  should  also 
give  such  measures  of  the  weight  and  dimensions  of  heavy  objects 
blown  about  by  the  wind  as  will  give  a  basis  for  calculating  the 
force  required  to  move  them. 

13.  Hourly  observations  are  desirable  for  the  eight  (8)  hours 
immediately  preceding  a  storm,  and  for  the  five  (5)  hours  directly 
succeeding  it.  Under  the  usual  conditions  for  local  wind-storms 
this  division  of  time  would  bring  the  first  observation  about  8 
A.  M.  and  the  last  about  9  P.  M.  But  these  times  will  differ  more 
or  less  according  to  the  peculiarities  of  each  storm. 

14.  Observations  at  the  following  hours  are  desirable  for  every 
day  on  which  the  conditions  are  even  slightly  favorable  for  tor- 


191 

nadoes:  7  A.  M.,  10  A.  M.,  12  noon,  2  P.  M.,  4  P.  M.,  and  8  P.  M. 

15.  Where  Reporters  are  possessed  of  additional  instruments 
to  those  here  considered  necessary,  they  may  report  the  observa- 
tions taken  with  such  instruments,  and  blank  space  will  be  found 
on  back  of  Circular  No.  V.  (new  series)  for  their  record. 

16.  If  Reporters  have  no  instruments,  and  cannot  afford  to 
purchase  any,  this  fact  will  not  wholly  incapacitate  them  for  the 
duties  involved  in  their  position.  A  large  proportion  of  the 
most  important  results  are  to  be  accomplished  by  simple  obser- 
vation and  careful  examination. 

17.  Reporters  are  informed  that  suggestions  from  them  relat- 
ing to  any  improvement  in  the  work  of  investigation  will  be 
gladly  accepted  and  carefully  considered. 

18.  Further  instructions  will  be  issued  from  time  to  time  as 
the  exigencies  of  the  work  demand. 

19.  It  is  needless  to  place  postage  stamps  upon  the  penalty- 
stamped  envelopes  and  wrappers  furnished  by  this  office.  The 
printed  stamp  on  the  upper  right-hand  corner  of  the  envelope  or 
wrapper  is  all-sufficient  for  mailing  any  communication  or 
printed  matter  relating  to  official  duties. 

20.  Tornado  Circular  No.  V.  (new  series)  will  be  used  in  con- 
nection with  the  general  instructions  herein  contained,  which 
will  govern  the  conduct  of  tornado  investigation. 

21.  A  special  description  of  every  tornado  is  desired.  The 
following  remarks  are  submitted  as  helpful  in  guiding  the  ob- 
server :  If  a  complete  account  of  the  entire  track  of  a  tornado  is 
undertaken,  let  the  observer  be  very  careful  to  state  as  accurately 
as  possible  the  place  of  beginning.  This  location  is  not  neces- 
sarily where  the  tornado-cloud  first  descended  to  the  earth 
(although  it  may  be),  but,  more  truly,  it  is  that  particular  spot 
or  portion  of  country  over  which  (perhaps  at  a  great  height 
above  the  earth)  the  funnel-shaped  cloud  was  first  seen  to  form. 

22.  Having  found  the  place  of  commencertient,  carefully  as- 
certain all  the  prehminary  conditions  of  atmospheric  changes 
existing  prior  to  the  development  of  the  tornado-cloud.  In 
determining  the  exact  locality  of  final  disappearance,  exercise  con- 
siderable vigilance,  for  you  may  most  easily  be  deceived.  It  is 
a  characteristic  feature  of  the  tornado -cloud  to  rise  suddenly  from 


192 


the  earth,  and,  continuing  its  northeastward  course  in  the  lower 
regions  of  the  atmosphere,  again  reaching  terra  Jirma  after  an 
interval  of  several  miles.  You  may  find  a  number  of  these  gaps 
along  the  tornado  track  you  are  examining,  but  do  not  mistake 
them  for  points  of  termination  ;  rather  look  upon  their  appear- 
ance as  suggestive  of  a  subsequent  re-appearance  rather  than  dis- 
appearance. If  these  gaps  occur  in  consecutive  order  as  to  time 
and  place,  pursuing,  when  taken  together,  a  northeastward  trend, 
and  the  difference  in  time  of  disappearance  and  re-appearance  at 
each  interval  accounts  for  the  passage  of  that  interval,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  of  their  forming  disconnected  parts  of  one  and  the 
same  tornado  track.  The  invariable  accompaniment  of  a  tornado 
is  the  hailstorm,  vi\\\Qh  precedes  its  first  appearance,  and  succeeds 
its  final  disappearance.  This  characteristic  should  be  carefully 
watched  for  and  any  peculiarity  minutely  recorded. 

23.  Tornado  features  are  peculiar  in  that  they  ^lxq  particular 
rather  than  general.  In  regard  to  information,  the  test  of  de- 
sirability is  reached,  not  so  much  by  the  quantity  as  the  char- 
acter of  the  data  given.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  to  success,  in 
securing  precisely  the  information  desired,  that  every  observer 
should  have  at  his  command  a  code  of  definite  instructions.  By 
this  means  he  will  realize  the  necessity  for  the  various  lists  of 
questions,  their  independent  use,  and  prepare  himself  to  under- 
take an  intelligent  examination  of  the  tornado's  path.  It  is  not 
expected  that  every  observer  will  find  it  possible  to  answer  all 
the  questions  in  any  of  the  lists,  because  of  the  necessarily  im- 
perfect opportunities  for  observation  incident  to  each  locality. 
It  is  assumed,  however,  that  if  the  conditions  for  observation 
were  complete,  every  question  could  be  readily  answered. 

24.  The  path  of  the  storm  should  be  divided  by  longitudinal 
lines  into  three  portions  parallel  to  the  direction  of  progress : 
these  will  be  designated  as  the  center  belt,  the  right  side,  the 
left  side.  These  latter  may  be  subdivided  into  belts  of  greatest 
or  least  disturbance. 

25.  Wherever  reference  is  made  to  areas  of  destruction,  or 
where  prostrations  are  described,  the  part  of  the  path  in  which 
the  destruction  occurred,  or  in  which  the  debris  was  found, 
should  always  be  mentioned. 


193 


26.  To  avoid  confusion,  no  terms  should  be  used  to  indicate 
the  sides  of  the  tornado  track  except     right  "  and  "  left." 

27.  The  direction  of  all  prostrated  objects  should  be  carefulty 
given ;  if  they  have  subsequently  been  moved  by  a  force  different 
from  that  which  threw  them  down,  or  should  the  same  force 
continue  to  act  in  successively  different  directions,  such  separate 
causes  should  be  carefully  distinguished. 

28.  The  track  of  the  tornado  should  be  examined  continuously 
throughout,  and  not  here  and  there.  The  examinations  should 
also  be  carried  beyond  the  path  of  greatest  violence ;  for,  al- 
though no  trees  or  houses  may  have  been  there  destroyed,  valu- 
able evidence  to  show  the  mode  of  action  can  often  be  obtained. 

29.  Groups  of  trees  lying  upon  each  other  should  receive  care- 
ful attention,  and  distinctions  should  be  made  between  the  top 
and  bottom  prostrations,  and  their  several  directions. 

30.  The  topography  of  the  ground  over  which  the  tornado 
has  passed,  and  especially  of  that  where  destruction  begins, 
should  be  observed.  The  comparative  destruction  on  hilly  and 
level  ground  should  also  be  noted. 

31.  The  atmospheric  conditions  before  and  after  the  appear- 
ance of  the  tornado,  especially  the  presence  of  a  thunder-storm, 
its  severity,  extent,  and  the  contrasts  of  temperature  north  and 
south  of  the  central  area  should  be  ascertained. 

32.  When  prostrations  are  described  on  either  side  of  the 
storm's  track,  or  at  the  center,  their  relative  positions,  either  re- 
specting each  other,  the  sides  of  the  storm's  path,  or  the  center, 
should  be  stated. 

33.  The  distance  at  which  the  surrounding  currents  of  air  are 
sensibly  influenced  by  the  cloud  vortex  ought  to  be  determined, 
and  also  it  should  be  noted  whether  or  not  any  previously  exist- 
ing currents  were  immediately,  or  during  the  passage  of  the 
tornado,  changed  in  their  direction. 

34.  The  currents  of  air  on  the  two  sides,  and  their  relative 
directions  and  forces,  should  be  carefully  mentioned;  also  the 
currents  of  the  center,  whether  upward,  downward,  or  rotary. 

35.  Any  unusual  manifestation  of  force  on  either  side  of  the 
track,  the  width  and  direction  of  the  path  of  destruction,  the 
character  of  the  ground  passed  over,  and  also  of  that  in  the  .im- 


194 


mediate  vicinity,  and  the  direction,  force,  and  temperature  of 
currents  of  air  should  be  given. 

36.  All  explosions,  the  side  on  which  they  occurred,  the  di- 
rection and  force  of  the  wind  at  the  time,  and  the  character  of 
the  ground  in  their  vicinity  should  be  noted. 

37.  The  place,  date,  time,  and  direction  of  the  tornado  are 
essential. 

38.  Observers  should  state  the  width  and  length  of  the  track, 
giving,  in  the  former  instance,  not  only  the  entire  breadth  of  the 
path  of  destruction,  but  of  that  part  over  which  the  greatest 
violence  was  exerted. 

39.  The  velocity  and  duration  of  the  storm,  and  the  shortest 
time  it  consumes  in  passing  any  one  point,  are  important  facts. 

40.  The  form  of  the  tornado-cloud,  its  motion,  direction,  and 
velocity  (estimating  the  latter  approximately,  if  it  cannot  be 
determined  accurately,  by  its  action  upon  surrounding  objects) 
should  be  given. 

41.  All  air-currents  which  have  been  instrumental  in  directly 
causing  destruction  are  important  facts. 

42.  The  direction  and  velocity  with  which  the  clouds,  if  there 
were  any,  were  seen  to  approach  before  the  beginning  of  the 
tornado,  or  any  strange  and  violent  agitation  of  the  atmosphere 
noticed  at  the  time,  ought  to  be  noticed. 

43.  The  appearance  and  disappearance  of  the  cloud  vortex, 
the  character  of  the  section  of  country  over  which  it  disappears, 
and  the  conditions  of  the  surface  at  the  points  of  its  departure 
and  return  should  be  noted. 

44.  The  occurrence  of  thunder  and  lightning,  and  all  evi 
dences  of  electrical  action,  particularly  within  the  tornado-cloud, 
should  be  given. 

45.  Particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  peculiar  rum- 
bling noise  attending  the  progress  of  the  tornado,  its  duration, 
intensity,  and  the  distance  at  which  it  can  be  heard. 

46.  The  precipitation  of  hail  and  rain,  the  time  of  its  occur- 
rence, whether  before,  after,  or  during  the  passage  of  the  tor- 
nado-cloud, the  side  on  which  it  fell,  and  the  direction  of  the 
wind  at  the  time,  are  necessary  elements  of  the  investigation. 


195 


47.  Efforts  should  be  made  to  gather  all  available  data  regard- 
ing cloud  formation,  so  that  when  opportunity  is  offered  any 
peculiar  development  may  be  preserved  by  means  of  a  sketch 
made  at  the  time  the  information  was  obtained. 

48.  In  all  attempts  at  sketching  a  tornado-cloud,  particular 
attention  should  be  given  to  illustrating  the  peculiar  whirl  of  the 
cloud,  so  that  the  sketch  shall  show  whether  the  direction  was 
from  right  to  left  or  the  reverse. 

49.  In  all  sketches  of  whatever  nature,  the  supposed  center 
of  the  storm's  path  should  always  be  indicated  by  a  long  arrow 
pointing  in  the  direction  of  the  storm's  progressive  movement, 
so  that  the  relative  position  of  the  objects  acted  upon  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  tornado's  track  may  be  known. 

50.  Every  effort  should  be  made  to  obtain  temperature  records, 
particularly  where  observations  have  been  taken  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  storm's  path ;  the  time  of  day  and  the  accompanying 
wind  direction  are  indispensable  facts  in  connection  with  these 
observations. 

51.  It  is  of  great  importance  that  trustworthy  data  concerning 
the  prevailing  direction  of  the  wind  over  the  section  of  country 
traversed  by  the  storm  (together  with  the  temperature),  for  at 
least  ten  days  before  the  storm,  should  be  obtained. 

52.  In  entering  upon  the  work  of  investigation,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  observer  begin  his  labors  as  near  as  possible  to  the  sup- 
posed origin  or  first  appearance  of  the  storm,  and  then  trace  the 
phenomena  in  regular  order. 

Such  method  will  often  provide  the  explanation  of  anomalous 
effects,  and  materially  assist  him  in  following  a  train  of  sequences, 
watching  the  successive  disclosures  of  the  various  features  of 
cloud  formation  and  attendant  wind  directions. 

Much  or  most  of  this  valuable  information  would  be  lost  or 
seriously  confused  by  any  other  mode  of  examining  the  storm's 

JOHN  P.  FINLEY, 
2d  Lieut.,  Signal  Corps,  U.  S.  A.,  and  Assistant. 
Prepared  under  the  direction  of — 

Brig,  and  Bvt.  Maj.  Gen'l  W.  B.  HAZEN, 

Chief  Signal  Officer  of  the  Army» 


196 


TORNADO  INVESTIGATION. 

Some  of  the  results  sought  to  be  attained  by  a  systematic  study  of 
tornadoes  may  be  briefly  given  as  follows  : — 

(i.)  To  determine  the  origin  of  tornadoes  and  their  relation  to  other 
atmospheric  phenomena. 

(2  .)  To  determine  the  geographical  distribution  of  tornadoes  and  their 
relative  frequency  of  occurrence  in  different  States,  and  in  different  parts 
of  the  same  States. 

(3.)  To  determine  the  conditions  of  formation,  with  a  view  to  the  pre- 
diction of  tornadoes. 

(4. )  To  determine  the  means  of  protection  for  life  and  property. 

(5.)  To  determine  the  periodicity  of  the  occurrence  of  tornadoes,  and 
their  relative  frequency  by  seasons,  months,  parts  of  a  month,  and  time 
of  day. 

(6.)  To  determine  the  prevailing  characteristics  of  tornadoes. 
(7. )  To  determine  the  relation  of  tornado  regions  to  areas  of  baromet- 
ric minimum. 

(8. )  To  ascertain  yearly  the  loss  of  life  and  property  in  the  various 
tornado  districts,  and  its  effect  upon  the  industries  of  the  people. 

(9.)  To  ascertam  the  influence  of  topography  upon  the  occurrence  and 
movement  of  tornadoes. 

(10.)  To  determine  the  influence  of  rainfall  and  forests  upon  the 
development  of  tornadoes. 

(II.)  To  ascertain  the  relations  of  tornadoes  to  hailstorms,  thunder- 
storms, and  hurricanes. 

The  following  are  most  of  the  features  of  map  study  that  must  receive 
consideration  in  the  preparation  of  a  tornado  prediction  for  any  day  : — 

(i.)  Barometric  Trough.  Region.  Ratio  of  Axis.  Pressure.  De- 
parture from  Normal. 

(2.)  Central  Area  of  Barometric  minimum.  Region.  Pressure. 
Departure  from  Normal. 

(3.)  High  Contrasts  of  Temperature.    Region.  Gradient. 

(4.)  High  Contrasts  of  Cold  Northerly  and  Warm  Southerly  Winds. 
Region. 

(5.)  High  Contrasts  of  Dew-point.    Region.  Gradient. 
(6. )  Heaviest  Lower  Cloud  Formation.    Region.  Kind. 
(7.)  Opposing  Movement  of  Lower  Clouds.    Region.  Directions. 
(8.)  Coincident  Movement  of  Upper  and  Lower  Clouds.  Region. 
Direction. 

(9.)  Opposing  Movement  of  Upper  and  Lower  Clouds.  Region. 
Direction. 

(10.)  Opposing  Movement  of  Lower  Clouds  and  Winds.  Region. 
Direction. 


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